User:Volubilis90/sandbox

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Biography

Cust est élu MP du parti unioniste pour Stamford en 1890. Il sert jusqu'à ce qu'il perd le siège en 1895. En 1900 il est élu MP pour Bermondsey et sert jusqu'à 1906. Le propriétaire du Pall Mall Gazettee, Astor, fait Cust le rédacteur du Pall Mall Gazette en 1892.

History

The Petit Trianon was erected in the midst of a botanic garden created by the botanist Bernard de Jussieu and tended to by the gardener Claude Richard. According to Pierre de Nolhac, "the choice of location witnesses above all the taste which the King had taken for the works of his botanists and gardeners."[1] Louis XV gave orders to his naval commanders to bring back exotic specimens which they found abroad so that they could be cultivated at the botanic garden of the Trianon.[2] New shrubs and trees came from as far away as the East Indies and China, with greenhouses built to house the tenderest plants. The botanic gardens became famous throughout Europe for their splendid floral plantings (théâtres de fleurs, as they were called).[3]

The Petit Trianon was built on the eastern edge of a pleasure garden in the formal jardin français style stretching from the Grand Trianon. This garden, laid out in 1749-53, was the last garden at Versailles to be designed in the "French" style, as the more naturalistic English garden afterwards became fashionable. [4] Along the axis of this garden, Gabriel built an octagonal pavilion called the pavillon français in 1749-50 as a retreat for the King.[5] The interior of the pavilion consists of a salon, antechamber, boudoir, lavatory, a stove room, and a room for preparing coffee.[6]

Between 1776 and 1786, Richard Mique overhauled and enlarged the gardens for Marie Antoinette, creating within them follies like a grotto, a belvedere pavilion and the Temple of Love, a theatre, and an early form of the merry-go-round called a jeu de bague.[7] To the north and east of the palace, Mique designed an English garden known as the Anglo-Chinese garden.[8] The topography of the site was altered and a lake created, along with several meandering rivers and an artificial rock formation rising above the lake. Creating the English garden required the sacrifice of Louis XV's botanic garden, whose specimens for the most part were transported to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris.[9][10]

The Chinese-style jeu de bague, which stood just to the north of the main house, was an enlarged and embellished version of one at Monceau owned by the Duke of Chartres.[11][12] Around a parasol at the center was a platform rotated by workers concealed underneath. The aim of the jeu (game) was for the participants to reach and grasp the rings hung from the parasol while the platform was turning. Men took their seats on carved dragons and women on peacocks. In 1781, the structure was embellished with a semi-circular gallery under three pagodas decorated with bells, weathervanes, and dragons. An underground tunnel was constructed to connect the house with the jeu de bague.[13][12]

To the north was constructed the theatre in 1778-79, and beyond the English garden the Hameau de la Reine (constructed 1782-1788). This was a mock-village, designed by Mique and the Queen's Painter Hubert Robert, for Marie Antoinette and her ladies to enjoy the pleasures of simple rural life.[4] The Hamlet featured a dairy, cottages, a mill, vegetable garden, orchards, a vineyard, and a working farm where the Queen's gardener Valy Bussard and his family lived.[14][15]

La Savoie and her sister La Lorraine responded to the need for larger, faster ships in the CGT fleet, after the company entered into a new postal contract with the French government in 1898.[16]

In March 1911, during a crossing in rough weather from Le Havre to New York, the ship was hit by a 50-foot-high wave which broke over the forward port side. The wave flooded parts of the vessel to a depth of several feet and swept away the staircase between the main and promenade decks. The engines were stopped and the La Savoie drifted for 8 hours until resuming her course.[17]

At the outbreak of the First World War, the La Savoie entered service as an armed merchant cruiser. In January 1915 she joined the French Mediterranean Fleet, acting as a troop transport ship. She landed troops in the Dardanelles and the eastern Mediterranean, sustaining damage from Turkish batteries in the process. In 1916, she evacuated part of the Serbian army to Corfu and then returned to France for repairs.

After the war, the French navy returned the La Savoie to CGT and she made her first commercial voyage from Le Havre since before the war on 26th April 1919. In 1923, she was refitted to accommodate 430 Cabin-Class and 613 Third-Class passengers.[18]


Basilica of Pompeii
LocationPompeii, Italy
TypeBasilica

The Basilica of Pompeii is an ancient Roman basilica located at the southwest corner of the forum. August Mau called it "the most magnificent and architecturally the most interesting building at Pompeii".[19] It is among the oldest basilicas known from the Roman world, pre-dating the establishment of the Roman colony at Pompeii (80 BC). Like other basilicas, the building functioned essentially as a covered extension of the forum, where judicial proceedings, business transactions, and other activities could take place during the cold months.

Building History

The Basilica was constructed towards the end of the 2nd century BC, coinciding with a dramatic realignment and alteration of the forum. The pre-Sullan date is suggested by roof tiles inscribed with "N. Pupie", the name of an Oscan-speaking magistrate, and graffiti written in Oscan.[20] Another graffito can be dated October 3, 78 BC: "C Pumidius Dipilus was here on the fifth day before the nones of October in the consulship of Marcus Lepidus and Quintus Catulus".[21]

The Basilica was badly damaged in the AD 62 Pompeii earthquake and had yet to be repaired at the time of the eruption of Vesuvius in 79.[22]

Description

The main entrance to the building was through the short east side which faced onto the forum. There are 5 openings, three between the four tufa columns at the center of the façade, and doorways on the left and right sides. The entrance led into a vestibule as wide as the building, which was open to the sky. From this vestibule, the entrance to the main hall is raised on four steps in basalt and had the same arrangement of entryways as the façade.[23] There were also smaller entrances in each of the lateral walls to the north and south. 28 huge brick columns, over 3.5 feet in diameter, divide the main hall/nave from the aisle which surrounds it on four sides. The brick shafts of the columns are the earliest example of this technique in Pompeii.[24] In antiquity, the columns were 36 feet high, stuccoed, and covered in an additional layer of plaster.[25] Ionic order half-columns were engaged along the walls, rising about half the height of the main columns. Above these half-columns was another order of columns, only the bottoms of which survive. Fragments of Corinthian columns have been found in the ruins, suggesting these belonged to the upper order. A balustrade would have run along the bottom half of the upper order, but above that there was open space between the columns, allowing light to enter the building.[26]

The dimensions of the space encompassing the nave and aisles measure approximately 180 feet x 79 feet.[27] The floor was paved in Opus signinum, a combination of brick and tile fragments mixed with mortar and pounded down flat.[28] The walls were stuccoed and painted to imitate colored marble veneers.[29] Based on the hypothesis of Antonio Sogliano, the nave was long believed by archaeologists to have been unroofed. This was disproven by Amedeo Maiuri in 1951 after he excavated beneath the floors of the basilica.[30] Even if the theory of an open nave has been discounted, the exact configuration of the roof is still debated.

On the short west side of the basilica, opposite the entrance, was the tribunal where magistrates sat to administer justice. It is a two-story edifice imitating a Greek stage background, with Corinthian columns on the bottom and Ionic ones on top. There was no staircase or ramp built for this tribunal. The magistrates likely would have climbed removable wooden ladders to take their positions, which ensured them a degree of protection from the raucous crowd, which could become violent if they disliked the judgements of the magistrates.[31] In front of the tribunal is a base for an equestrian statue, though the statue itself is long lost. Filippo Coarelli believes it would have held a statue of Augustus, since "starting with the Imperial age...tribunals in the basilicas were closely associated with the Imperial cult, and were sometimes in fact turned into Augusteums."[32] There are rooms on either side of the tribunal, which Mau reckoned were waiting rooms for litigants.[33] Under the tribunal there is a vaulted chamber, which was half underground/half above ground. It was entered by means of two holes in the floor of the tribunal; Mau believed it was likely a storage room for documents, writing utensils, and other materials belonging to the court.[34]

The columns and walls of the basilica abound in graffiti. The word "Bassilica" was found scratched numerous times into the wall to the right of the south entrance, a testament to the purpose of the building.[35]

  • Plan of the basilica
    Plan of the basilica
  • Entrance to the basilica
    Entrance to the basilica
  • Tribunal of the basilica
    Tribunal of the basilica
  • Pompeii Basilica, view towards the Forum
    Pompeii Basilica, view towards the Forum

Bibliography

  • Beard, Mary (2008). The Fires of Vesuvius: Pompeii Lost and Found. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press.
  • Mau, August & Kelsey, Francis (1902). Pompeii: Its Life and Art. Macmillan, pp 180-195.
  • Sear, Frank (1982). Roman Architecture. Cornell University Press.

Claude-Emmanuel Luillier

Claude-Emmanuel Luillier
Claude-Emmanuel Luillier, dit Chapelle (1626-1686)
Born1626 (1626)
La-Chapelle-Saint-Denis, France
Died1686 (1687)
Paris, France
Pen nameChapelle
OccupationPoet
NationalityFrench

Claude-Emmanuel Luillier (1626-1686), known as Chapelle, was a French poet of the 17th century. He was regarded as "the master of light verse" by his contemporaries and was a close friend to men of letters like Molière, Cyrano de Bergerac, Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux, Jean de La Fontaine and Racine.[36] His best-known work is a 1663 prose and verse account of his travels to the South of France called Voyage de Chapelle et de Bachaumont, co-authored with his travelling companion François le Coigneux de Bachaumont.

Biography

Luillier was born in a village between Paris and Saint-Denis called La-Chapelle Saint-Denis (from whence he came to be known as Chapelle), the illegitimate son of François Luillier and Marie Chanut. His father would legitimize him in 1642.[37] François was a Master of Requests and counsellor to the Parlement of Metz who circulated with some of the most renowned writers of his day.[38] His father provided Chapelle with an excellent education - his philosophy master was Pierre Gassendi, the philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician.[39] He also gave Chapelle a handsome income of 8,000 livres per year.[40]

Chapelle attended the College de Clermont, where his fellow-students included Molière, Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti, and François Bernier.[41] He was a lifelong friend to Molière, who turned to him frequently for advice. "Many of the most shining parts of Molière's comedies have been ascribed to him", according to the New General Biographical Dictionary, and "he is also believed to have supplied Racine with several comic touches in his Plaideurs."[39] He was the poetry master to a younger poet, Guillaume Amfrye de Chaulieu, who praised Chapelle's poetry for its elegance but criticized its lack of "moral reflections, maxims of a philosophical order, or high principles."[42]

Chapelle was known as a pleasure-loving libertine with a penchant for heavy drinking.[43] One anecdote concerns his friend, the writer Boileau, who met Chapelle on the street and asked him why he drank so much. Chapelle ushered him into a tavern on the pretense that he could better explain his reasons, and there proceeded to get himself and Boileau so drunk they had to be sent home in separate carriages.[40][43] One biographer of Molière describes Chapelle as "a marginal character, a libertine, a notorious drinker and carouser...his work was as ephemeral as his life...he was, to be frank, a tavern wit, but one to whom Boileau and Molière remained faithful."[43] Chapelle's Voyage à Encausse, also known as the Voyage de Chapelle et Bachaumont, described as a "charming literary satire" by Saint-Beuve, alternates between verse and prose. This gives it the effect of an "operatic alternation between recitative and lyric."[44] It also contains some biting personal attacks on Chapelle's contemporaries.[45] For instance, one passage mocks his former-friend Charles Coypeau d'Assoucy and accuses him of homosexuality. This caused bitter recriminations from d'Assoucy, who accused Chapelle of being a homosexual himself and also being a coward, plagiarist, drunkard, and atheist.[46]

About two dozen of Chapelle's epigrams and epistles survive. His skill as a talker seems to have been the chief reason for his renown in his own time. Bernier wrote of Chapelle that "never did Nature make an imagination livelier, a spirit more penetrating, finer, more delicate, more playful, more agreeable." His epistles are addressed to a number of prominent people, including Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme, the Prince of Condé, Ninon de Lenclos, the Duke of Saint-Aignan, Charles Coypeau d'Assoucy, etc.[47] His Voyage and poetical works were re-published at The Hague in 1732, and at Paris in 1755 by Lefèvre de Saint-Marc.


History

The Redoute Chinoise was opened by Roger-Timothée Régnard de Pleinchesne in 1781 in the Enclos Saint-Laurent, the fairgrounds of the Saint-Laurent Fair. In modern Paris, the site of the old fair is located southwest of the entrance to the Gare de l'Est, in the 10th arrondissement.

The Redoute contained a multitude of buildings in the Chinese style. A colonnaded hall rested on top of a rock formation containing a grotto, where a cafe operated. Opposite the rock was a marquee serving as a restaurant. In the space between the restaurant and escarpment was a contraption known as the Jeu de bagne chinois which was perhaps an early incarnation of the Merry-go-round.[48] On May 12 1783, an 'academic festival' (fête académique) was held at the Redoute to celebrate the signing of the Treaty of Paris, which brought the American War of Independence to an end. Benjamin Franklin was presented with a medal and there was an assortment of lectures by members of the French Academy of Sciences. Jérôme Lalande lectured on William Herschel's recent discovery of a new planet - Uranus.[49]

In September 1783, a failed attempt to launch a balloon from the Redoute caused the assembled crowd to riot.

Stabian Baths

Forum Baths
Alternative nameItalian: Terme del Foro
LocationPompeii, Italy
TypeThermae

The Forum Baths are an ancient bathing complex in Pompeii, Italy, one of five public bath complexes in the town. They are so-called because they lie just north of the forum of Pompeii, behind the Temple of Jupiter. The Forum Baths were the only public baths in Pompeii which were in operation at the time of the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD.[50]

History

The Forum Baths were built ca. 80 BC, around the time that Pompeii became a Roman colony. They responded to the needs of the city's growing population, which made the one pre-existing public bathhouse, the Stabian Baths, inadequate.[51] They were built by three of the city's magistrates, the duovir Lucius Caesius and the aediles Gaius Occius and Lucius Niraemius.[52] The women's section was a later addition, possibly dating from the Augustan era. According to Garrett Fagan, the new section was "rather inexpertly crammed into the northwest corner, so that it encroached onto the street." [53]

The excavation of the Forum Baths in 1824-28 caused a public "sensation" amongst contemporaries, since they were the first of the public baths to be rediscovered in Pompeii. Before that time only a few small bath facilities in private homes had been discovered in the city, so the discovery of a sophisticated, relatively large public complex "provided a more complete picture of Roman bathing practices...than had previously been available..."[54] The first book to provide an account and published images of the newly-discovered baths was the third volume of Les Ruines de Pompéi, by the French architect François Mazois.[55] The painter Théodore Chassériau based his painting Tepidarium on the room of that name from the Forum Baths, which he visited during a sojourn in Italy between 1840-41.[54]

Description

The Baths occupy nearly a whole city block behind the Temple of Jupiter, at the crossroads of Via del Foro and Via delle Terme. As with other ancient Roman baths, they were divided by sex. The men's side proceeded in a standard sequence from apodyterium (dressing room) to the frigidarium (cold room), tepidarium (warm room), and caldarium (hot room). The layout of the Forum Baths is similar in many ways to the larger Stabian Baths, with a palaestra and sheltering portico, the same circular frigidaria, and similar tepidaria, caldaria, and apodyteria.[56] Like the one in the Stabian Baths, the frigidarium of the men's section was probably converted from an earlier Sudatorium/Laconicum (sweating and dry-sweating rooms).[57] The women's section is in worse condition than the men's, which August Mau speculated was a result of the AD 62 Pompeii earthquake. The ceilings of the female apodyterium, tepidarium and caldarium are intact, but the caldarium has lost its hollow walls and floors, as well as its bath basin (alveus), and its labrum.[58]

The bath complex was bordered on the south, east, and north sides by rows of shops facing onto the streets.[59] The men's side had three separate entrances: from Via del Foro, Via delle Terme and Vicolo delle Terme. The north entrance from Via delle Terme led directly to the apodyterium. The west entrance from Vicolo delle Terme led directly into the palaestra. Near this entrance was a latrine, installed after the AD 62 earthquake. The east entrance, assumed to be the main entryway because it passes by a cubicle where the attendant/custodian would have sat, passed into either the apodyterium or palaestra.[60] From the palaestra the visitor could proceed via a narrow corridor to the apodyterium to begin his bathing routine. It was in this corridor leading to the apodyterium that 500 lamps were discovered during the original excavations.[61] These would have been used by the bathers for light, since according to Vitruvius, people visited the baths mainly in the late-afternoon/evening.[62] In total, 1,328 lamps made of either clay or bronze were found in the Forum Baths.[63]

Three of the four sides of the palaestra are fronted by a portico; the fourth is fronted by arches raised on piers.[64] The palaestra is too small to have been used for games, so it was likely a garden with benches on the north side. There was also an open room on the north side, probably used for people to gather and talk.[65]

Apodyterium

The men's apodyterium is paved in white mosaic with a black border. Natural light is admitted through a window in the lunette at the south end of the room. The window was fitted with 1/2 inch thick glass in a bronze frame, which could be opened and closed on two pivots.[66] There are no purpose-built niches for storing clothing and belongings, as in the Stabian Baths. Instead, nail holes seem to indicate that wooden cubicles were probably attached for storage. Built-in benches covered in plaster line the walls on three sides, for patrons to sit down on while dressing/undressing or for the slaves to rest on while they were attending them.[67]

Frigidarium

The frigidarium is round and domed, with an oculus at the center of the dome which allows natural light into the room. A rectangular opening extends south of the oculus, allowing as much sunlight to enter the room as possible.[68] There are 4 niches built into the circular wall and the cold-water tub at the center is stepped and lined in white marble. According to August Mau, the frigidarium "is almost an exact counterpart of the one in the Stabian Baths, but the scheme of decoration, suggestive of a garden, is less realistically carried out, the ground being yellow..."[69] It was likely first built for use as a laconicum, a hot-air room akin to a modern sauna.[70]

  • Frigidarium
    Frigidarium
  • Cold water tub from the frigidarium
    Cold water tub from the frigidarium

Tepidarium

The tepidarium is rectangular and barrel-vaulted. A set of square niches runs along the middle part of the wall. Between the niches are sculpted atlantes figures made from clay and covered in stucco. These belong to the original decoration from when the baths were built. The stucco ceiling and the stucco band with a vegetative scroll, which runs above the niches, belong to the restorations after 62 AD.[71]

The tepidarium was never converted to the more modern hypocaust heating system, relying instead on traditional bronze braziers placed inside the room for heat. One of these was found in situ when the room was excavated. The brazier is inscribed with the name of the man who donated it, Marcus Nigidius Vaccula. The corners have cows heads molded onto them, and the feet are in the shape of cows' feet. This is a reference to Vaccula, whose name means cow in Latin.[72][73] The ceiling is decorated with elaborate stucco panels, with white figures and decoration appearing in relief against a background painted in red, white, or violet. The panels depict mythological scenes like Apollo riding a griffin, Ganymede with the eagle, Cupid leaning against his bow, and Cupids riding sea horses.[74]

  • Stucco ceiling in the men's tepidarium
    Stucco ceiling in the men's tepidarium
  • Stuccowork in the southeast corner of the tepidarium
    Stuccowork in the southeast corner of the tepidarium
  • Atlantes figures in the tepidarium
    Atlantes figures in the tepidarium
  • Forum Baths, bronze bench and brazier in south end of tepidarium
    Forum Baths, bronze bench and brazier in south end of tepidarium

Caldarium

The men's caldarium, like the tepidarium, is rectangular and barrel-vaulted. Part of the ceiling was destroyed in the 79 AD eruption.[75] At one end of the room is an apse containing the labrum, a large, shallow basin made of alabaster. This would have been supplied with lukewarm water for the men to refresh themselves with after bathing in the hot water basin (alveus) at the opposite end of the room. The labrum was donated in 3-4 AD and is inscribed with the names of the donors: Gnaeus Melissaeius Aper and Marcus Staius Rufus.[76] The alveus is raised on two steps and lined in white marble. It has a slanting back for the bathers to rest against.[77] The caldarium features a hypocaust heating system: the floor is raised on tile pillars (suspensurae) and the insides of the walls are lined with tiles called tegulae mammatae, which created a hollow space for the hot air to circulate.[78] The ceiling is fluted with stucco, and the walls painted in yellow interspersed with red pilasters.[79]

  • Men's caldarium
    Men's caldarium
  • Bath basin of the caldarium
    Bath basin of the caldarium
  • Marble labrum
    Marble labrum

Bibliography

  • Beard, Mary (2008). The Fires of Vesuvius: Pompeii Lost and Found. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press.
  • Connolly, Peter (1990). Pompeii. Oxford University Press.
  • de Albentiis, Emidio (2006). "Social Life: Spectacles, Athletic Games, and Baths," Pompeii. Barnes & Noble Publications.
  • Fagan, Garrett G. (2002). Bathing in Public in the Roman World. University of Michigan Press.
  • Koloski-Ostrow, Anna Olga (2009) "The city baths of Pompeii and Herculaneum," The World of Pompeii. Taylor & Francis.
  • Mau, August & Kelsey, Francis (1902). Pompeii: Its Life and Art. Macmillan, pp 180-195.
  • Sear, Frank (1982). Roman Architecture. Cornell University Press.

References

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  2. ^ Michel Baridon (2008). A history of the gardens of Versailles. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 207-211.
  3. ^ Hélène Delalex, Alexandre Maral, Nicolas Milovanovic (2016). Marie Antoinette. J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 110.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  14. ^ Meredith Martin. Dairy Queens: The Politics of Pastoral Architecture from Catherine De' Medici to Marie-Antoinette. Harvard University Press. p. 201-209. {{cite book}}: Text "year-2011" ignored (help)
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  74. ^ Mau, 1902; p. 199
  75. ^ Koloski-Ostrow, 2009; p. 233
  76. ^ Giuntoli, 2000; p. 114
  77. ^ Mau, 1902; p. 200
  78. ^ Giuntoli, 2000; p. 114
  79. ^ Mau, 1902; p. 200

Category: Buildings and structures completed in the 2nd century BC Category: Ancient Roman baths in Italy Category: Pompeii (ancient city) Category: Ancient Roman buildings and structures in Italy

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