User:WilliamJackson888/sandbox

{{Infobox country

| conventional_long_name = Republic of the Union of Myanmar

| common_name = Myanmar

| native_name = {{ubl|{{native name|my|ပြည်ထောင်စု သမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်‌}}|''Pyidaunzu Thanmăda Myăma Nainngandaw''}}

| image_flag = Flag of Myanmar.svg

| image_coat = State seal of Myanmar.svg

| symbol_type = State Seal

| national_anthem = {{unbulleted list |"[[Kaba Ma Kyei]]"|("Till the End of the World")}}<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:U.S. Navy Band - Kaba Ma Kyei.oga|centre]]</div>

| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Myanmar (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Burma (Myanmar) ASEAN.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of ASEAN|default=1}}

| map_caption = {{map caption |location_color=green |region=[[ASEAN]] |region_color=dark grey |legend=Location Burma (Myanmar) ASEAN.svg}}

| image_map2 =

| capital = [[Naypyidaw]]{{Ref label|a|a}}

| coordinates = {{Coord|19|45|N|96|6|E|type:city}}

| largest_city = [[Yangon]]{{Ref label|b|b}}

| official_languages = [[Burmese language|Burmese]]

| regional_languages = {{hlist| |[[Kachin language|Kachin]] |[[Kayah language|Kayah]] |[[Karen language|Karen]] |[[Chin language|Chin]] |[[Mon language|Mon]] |[[Rakhine language|Rakhine]] |[[Shan language|Shan]]}}

| languages_type = [[Official script]]

| languages = [[Burmese script]]

| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list

| 68% [[Bamar people|Bamar]]

| 9% [[Shan people|Shan]]

| 7% [[Karen people|Karen]]

| 4% [[Rakhine people|Rakhine]]

| 3% [[Chinese people in Myanmar|Chinese]]

| 2% [[Burmese Indians|Indians]]

| 2% [[Mon people|Mon]]

| 5% others

}}

| ethnic_groups_year = 2018<ref>{{cite web |title=Largest Ethnic Groups In Myanmar |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/largest-ethnic-groups-in-myanmar-burma.html |website=Worldatlas}}</ref><ref name="World Factbook" />

| religion = {{unbulleted list

| 87.9% [[Buddhism in Myanmar|Buddhism]]

| 6.2% [[Christianity in Myanmar|Christianity]]

| 4.3% [[Islam in Myanmar|Islam]]

| 1.6% [[Religion in Myanmar|Others]]<ref>{{cite web |title=The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census- The Union Report: Religion |url=https://myanmar.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/UNION_2-C_religion_EN_0.pdf |website=myanmar.unfpa.org |publisher=Department of Population Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population MYANMAR |access-date=3 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329011235/http://myanmar.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/UNION_2-C_religion_EN_0.pdf |archive-date=29 March 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

}}

| demonym = Burmese / Myanma<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.health.act.gov.au/sites/default/files/ACT%20Health%20Community%20Profile%20-%20Burma%20%282014%29.pdf|title=ACT Health Community Profile, pg. 1|publisher=Multicultural Health Policy Unit|access-date=5 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411161154/http://www.health.act.gov.au/sites/default/files/ACT%20Health%20Community%20Profile%20-%20Burma%20%282014%29.pdf|archive-date=11 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

| government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[assembly-independent]] [[republic]] under a [[military junta]]

| leader_title1 = [[President of Myanmar|President]]

| leader_name1 = [[Myint Swe (general)|Myint Swe]] (acting)

| leader_title2 = [[State Administration Council]]

| leader_name2 =

{{unbulleted list

| {{nowrap|[[Min Aung Hlaing]] {{small|([[Chairman of the State Administrative Council|Chairman]])}}}}

| [[Soe Win (general)|Soe Win]] {{small|([[Vice Chairman of the State Administrative Council|Vice Chairman]])}}

}}

{{Collapsible list

| frame_style = border:none; padding: 0;

| list_style = text-align:left;

| [[Aung Lin Dwe]] {{small|(Secretary)}}

| [[Ye Win Oo]] {{small|(Joint Secretary)}}

| [[Mya Tun Oo]]

| [[Tin Aung San]]

| [[Maung Maung Kyaw]]

| [[Moe Myint Tun]]

| [[Mahn Nyein Maung]]

| [[Thein Nyunt]]

| [[Khin Maung Swe]]

| [[Aye Nu Sein]]

| [[Jeng Phang Naw Htaung]]

| [[Maung Ha]]

| [[Sai Long Hseng]]

| [[Saw Daniel]]

| [[Banyar Aung Moe]]

}}

| leader_title3 = First [[Vice-President of Myanmar|Vice-President]]

| leader_name3 =

| leader_title4 = Second [[Vice-President of Myanmar|Vice-President]]

| leader_name4 =

| leader_title5 = [[State Counsellor of Myanmar|State Counsellor]]

| leader_name5 =

| legislature = [[Assembly of the Union]]

| upper_house = [[House of Nationalities]]

| lower_house = {{nowrap|[[House of Representatives (Myanmar)|House of Representatives]]}}

| sovereignty_type = [[History of Myanmar|Formation]]

| established_event1 = [[Pyu city-states]]

| established_date1 = {{circa|180 BCE}}

| established_event2 = [[Pagan Kingdom]]

| established_date2 = 23 December 849

| established_event3 = [[Taungoo Dynasty]]

| established_date3 = 16 October 1510

| established_event4 = [[Konbaung Dynasty]]

| established_date4 = 29 February 1752

| established_event5 = [[Third Anglo-Burmese War|Annexation by Britain]]

| established_date5 = 1 January 1886

| established_event6 = [[Post-independence Burma, 1948–1962|Independence]] from [[British rule in Burma|British]]

| established_date6 = 4 January 1948

| established_event7 = [[1962 Burmese coup d'état|Coup d'état]]

| established_date7 = 2 March 1962

| established_event8 = Renamed from "Burma" to "Myanmar"

| established_date8 = 18 June 1989

| established_event9 = Restoration of [[President of Myanmar|presidency]]

| established_date9 = 30 March 2011

| established_event10 = [[2021 Myanmar coup d'état|Coup d'état]]

| established_date10 = 1 February 2021

| area_km2 = 676,578

| area_rank = 39th

| area_sq_mi = 261,227

| percent_water = 3.06

| population_census = 53,582,855 (2017)<ref name="worldometers.info">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/myanmar-population/|title=Myanmar Population (2018) – Worldometers|website=worldometers.info}}</ref>

| population_census_year = 2017

| population_census_rank = 26th

| population_density_km2 = 76

| population_density_sq_mi =

| population_density_rank = 125th

| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $355 billion<ref name="IMFWEOMM">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2018&ey=2020&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=69&pr1.y=15&c=518&s=NGDP_RPCH%2CNGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=3 January 2020}}</ref>

| GDP_PPP_year = 2019

| GDP_PPP_rank = 51st

| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{decrease}} $6,707<ref name="IMFWEOMM" />

| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 128th

| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $66 billion<ref name="IMFWEOMM" />

| GDP_nominal_year = 2019

| GDP_nominal_rank = 72nd

| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $1,245<ref name="IMFWEOMM" />

| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 155th

| Gini = 38.1

| Gini_year = 2015

| Gini_change =

| Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=MM |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) |publisher=[[World Bank]] |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=5 March 2019}}</ref>

| Gini_rank =

| HDI = 0.583

| HDI_year = 2019

| HDI_change = decrease

| HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref>

| HDI_rank = 147th

| currency = [[Burmese kyat|Kyat]] (K)

| currency_code = MMK

| time_zone = [[Myanmar Standard Time|MMT]]

| utc_offset = +06:30

| drives_on = right

| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Myanmar|+95]]

| iso3166code = MM

| cctld = [[.mm]]

| footnote_a = {{Note|a}} Also spelled "Nay Pyi Taw".

| footnote_b = {{Note|b}} Also spelled "Rangoon".

| today =

| name =

| time_zone_DST =

| established_event13 =

}}

'''Myanmar''' (UK pronunciations incl. {{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|j|æ|n|ˈ|m|ɑː|r|,|_|ˈ|m|j|æ|n|m|ɑː|r}}, US pronunciations incl. {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|j|ɑː|n|m|ɑː|r|,|_|ˌ|m|j|ɑː|n|ˈ|m|ɑː|r}},{{refn|group=nb|Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As [[John Wells]] explains, the English spellings of both Myanmar and Burma assume a non-rhotic variety of English, in which the letter r before a consonant or finally serves merely to indicate a long vowel: [ˈmjænmɑː, ˈbɜːmə]. So the pronunciation of the last syllable of Myanmar as [mɑːr] or of Burma as [bɜːrmə] by some speakers in the UK and all in North America is in fact a [[spelling pronunciation]] based on a misunderstanding of non-rhotic spelling conventions. The final ''r'' in ''Myanmar'' was not intended for pronunciation and is there to ensure that the final a is pronounced with the [[broad a|broad ''ah'']] ({{IPAc-en|ɑː}}) in "father". If the Burmese name {{lang-my|မြန်မာ|label=none}} {{IPA-my|mjəmà||}} were spelled "Myanma" in English, this would be pronounced {{IPAc-en|ə}} at the end by all English speakers. If it were spelled "Myanmah", the end would be pronounced {{IPAc-en|ɑː}} by all English speakers.}} {{small|other English pronunciations [[#Etymology|below]]}}; {{lang-my|မြန်မာ}} {{IPA-my|mjəmà||}}) or '''Burma''' ({{lang-my|ဗမာ}} {{IPA-my|bəmà||}}), officially the '''Republic of the Union of Myanmar''',{{refn|group=nb|{{lang-my|ပြည်ထောင်စု သမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတေ}} {{IPA-my|pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀||}}}} is a country in [[Southeast Asia]]. Myanmar is bordered by [[Bangladesh]] and [[India]] to its northwest, [[China]] to its northeast, [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]] to its east and southeast, and the [[Andaman Sea]] and the [[Bay of Bengal]] to its south and southwest. Myanmar is the largest country in [[Mainland Southeast Asia]] and the 10th largest in [[Asia]] by area. As of 2017, the population was about 54 million.<ref name="worldometers.info" /> Its capital city is [[Naypyidaw]], and its largest city is [[Yangon]] (Rangoon).<ref name="World Factbook">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burma/ |work=The World Factbook |title=Burma |publisher=U.S. Central Intelligence Agency }}</ref>

Early civilisations in the area included the [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]]-speaking [[Pyu city-states]] in [[Upper Myanmar]] and the [[Mon kingdoms]] in [[Lower Myanmar]].<ref>{{cite book | title=Early civilizations of Southeast Asia | publisher=Altamira Press | author=O'Reilly, Dougald JW | year=2007 | location=United Kingdom | isbn=978-0-7591-0279-8}}</ref> In the 9th century, the [[Bamar people]] entered the upper [[Irrawaddy River|Irrawaddy]] valley, and following the establishment of the [[Pagan Kingdom]] in the 1050s, the [[Burmese language]], [[Culture of Myanmar|culture]], and [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism in Myanmar|Buddhism]] slowly became dominant in the country. The [[Pagan Kingdom]] fell to [[First Mongol invasion of Burma|Mongol invasions]], and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the [[Toungoo dynasty|Taungoo dynasty]], the country became the largest empire in the [[history of Southeast Asia]] for a short period.<ref>[[#Lieberman|Lieberman]], p. 152</ref> The early 19th-century [[Konbaung dynasty]] ruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled [[Manipur]] and [[Assam]] as well. The British [[East India Company]] seized control of the administration of Myanmar after three [[Anglo-Burmese Wars]] in the 19th century, and the country became a [[British rule in Burma|British colony]]. After a brief [[Japanese occupation of Burma|Japanese occupation]], Myanmar was reconquered by the Allies and [[Independence Day (Myanmar)|granted independence]] in 1948. Following a [[1962 Burmese coup d'état|coup d'état in 1962]], it became a [[military dictatorship]] under the [[Burma Socialist Programme Party]].

For most of its independent years, the country has been engrossed in rampant ethnic strife and [[List of ethnic groups in Myanmar|its myriad ethnic groups]] have been involved in one of the world's [[Internal conflict in Myanmar|longest-running ongoing civil wars]]. During this time, the [[United Nations]] and several other organisations have reported consistent and systematic [[Human rights in Myanmar|human rights]] violations in the country.<ref name=UNHR>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/burma |title=Burma |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=6 July 2013}} {{cite web|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/countries/asia-and-the-pacific/myanmar |title=Myanmar Human Rights |publisher=Amnesty International USA |access-date=6 July 2013}} {{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report-2012/world-report-2012-burma |title=World Report 2012: Burma |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=6 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130630121229/http://www.hrw.org/world-report-2012/world-report-2012-burma |archive-date=30 June 2013 |date=22 January 2012 }}</ref> In 2011, the [[State Peace and Development Council|military junta]] was officially dissolved following a [[2010 Myanmar general election|2010 general election]], and a nominally civilian government was installed. This, along with the release of [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] and [[political prisoner]]s, had improved the country's human rights record and foreign relations and has led to the easing of trade and other [[economic sanctions]].<ref name=Easing>{{cite news |author=Madhani, Aamer |title=Obama administration eases Burma sanctions before visit |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/theoval/2012/11/16/obama-lifts-sanctions-burma-visit/1710253/ |newspaper=USA Today |date=16 November 2012}} {{cite news |last1=Fuller |first1=Thomas |last2=Geitner |first2=Paul |title=European Union Suspends Most Myanmar Sanctions |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/24/world/asia/eu-suspends-sanctions-on-myanmar.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=23 April 2012}}</ref> There is, however, continuing criticism of the government's treatment of ethnic minorities, its response to the ethnic insurgency, and religious clashes.<ref name=MinorityTreatment>{{cite web|author=Greenwood, Faine |url=http://www.undispatch.com/the-8-stages-of-genocide-against-burmas-rohingya |title=The 8 Stages of Genocide Against Burma's Rohingya | UN DispatchUN Dispatch |publisher=Undispatch.com |date=27 May 2013 |access-date=13 April 2014}} {{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/11/us-myanmar-violence-idUSBRE85A01C20120611 | title=EU welcomes "measured" Myanmar response to rioting | work=Reuters | date=11 June 2012}} {{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18395788 | title=Q&A: Communal violence in Burma | publisher=BBC | access-date=14 October 2013}}</ref> In the [[2015 Myanmar general election|2015 election]], [[Aung San Suu Kyi]]'s party won a majority in both houses. However, the [[Tatmadaw|Burmese military]] remained a powerful force in politics and, on 1 February 2021, again seized power [[2021 Myanmar coup d'état|in a coup d'état]].<ref name=":3">{{cite news|date=1 February 2021|title=Myanmar military takes control of country after detaining Aung San Suu Kyi|language=en-GB|publisher=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-55882489|access-date=1 February 2021}}</ref>

Myanmar is a member of the [[East Asia Summit]], [[Non-Aligned Movement]], [[ASEAN]], and [[Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation|BIMSTEC]], but it is not a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. It is a country rich in [[jade]] and [[Gemstone|gems]], [[oil]], [[natural gas]], and other [[Natural resource|mineral resources]]. Myanmar is also endowed with [[renewable energy]]; it has the highest [[solar power]] potential compared to other countries of the Great [[Mekong]] Subregion.<ref>Vakulchuk, Roman; Kyaw Kyaw Hlaing; Edward Ziwa Naing; Indra Overland; Beni Suryadi and Sanjayan Velautham (2017). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317954536 ''Myanmar’s Attractiveness for Investment in the Energy Sector. A Comparative International Perspective''.] Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) and Myanmar Institute of Strategic and International Studies (MISIS) Report. p. 8.</ref> In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$56.7 billion and its GDP ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) at US$221.5 billion.<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2017&ey=2019&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=64&pr1.y=6&c=518&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=Burma (Myanmar) |work=World Economic Outlook Database |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> The [[Economic inequality|income gap]] in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by supporters of the military government.<ref name=IncomeGap>{{cite news |url=http://www.nationmultimedia.com/aec/Income-gap-worlds-widest-30214106.html |title=Income Gap 'world's widest' |work=The Nation |access-date=15 September 2014 |author=Eleven Media |date=4 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140915230853/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/aec/Income-gap-worlds-widest-30214106.html |archive-date=15 September 2014 }} {{cite news | url=https://www.dvb.no/analysis/income-inequality-in-burma/33726 | title=Income inequality in Burma | publisher=Democratic Voice of Burma | access-date=15 September 2014 | author=McCornac, Dennis | date=22 October 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140915230920/https://www.dvb.no/analysis/income-inequality-in-burma/33726 | archive-date=15 September 2014 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, according to the [[Human Development Index]], Myanmar ranks 147 out of 189 countries in human development.<ref name="HDI" />

== Etymology ==

The name of the country has been a matter of dispute and disagreement, particularly in the early 21st century, focusing mainly on the political legitimacy of those using ''Myanmar'' versus ''Burma''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usip.org/blog/2018/06/whats-name-burma-or-myanmar|title=What's in a Name: Burma or Myanmar?|website=United States Institute of Peace|language=en|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7013943.stm|title=Should it be Burma or Myanmar?|date=26 September 2007|access-date=27 April 2020|language=en-GB}}</ref> Both names derive from the earlier [[Burmese language|Burmese]] ''Myanma'' or ''Myamma'', an ethnonym for the majority [[Bamar people|Bamar]] ethnic group, of uncertain etymology.<ref name=dgeh>{{cite book | title=Burma | last=Hall | first=DGE | chapter=Pre-Pagan Burma | year=1960 | edition=3 | page=13}}</ref> The terms are also popularly thought to derive from ''Brahma Desha'' or ब्रह्मादेश/ब्रह्मावर्त ([[Sanskrit]]) after [[Brahma]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bV3shLzx0B4C&pg=PA352|title=Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics: Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy|last=Houtman|first=Gustaaf|date=1999|publisher=ILCAA|isbn=9784872977486|page=352}}</ref>

In 1989, the military government [[List of renamed places in Myanmar|officially changed]] the English translations of many names dating back to [[British rule in Burma|Burma's colonial period]] or earlier, including that of the country itself: ''Burma'' became ''Myanmar''. The renaming remains a contested issue.<ref name="Houtman1999">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bV3shLzx0B4C&pg=PA45 |title=Mental culture in Burmese crisis politics |last=Houtman |first=Gustaaf |year=1999 |series=ILCAA Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa Monograph Series No. 33 |publisher=Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa |pages=43–54 |isbn=978-4-87297-748-6}}</ref> Many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use ''Burma'' because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to rename the country.<ref name="steinberg">{{cite book |last=Steinberg |first=David I. |date=2002 |title=Burma: The State of Myanmar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSTuWZ0BMmMC |publisher=Georgetown University Press |page=xi |isbn=978-1-58901-285-1}}</ref>

In April 2016, soon after taking office, [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] commented on the question of which name should be used and said that "it is up to you because there is nothing in the constitution of our country that says that you must use any term in particular". She continued, "I use Burma very often because I am used to using it. But it does not mean that I require other people to do that as well. And I’ll make an effort to say Myanmar from time to time so you all feel comfortable."<ref name=scmp>''South China Morning Post'', [http://www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/1937886/whats-name-not-much-according-aung-san-suu-kyi-who-tells "What's in a name? Not much, according to Aung San Suu Kyi, who tells diplomats they can use Myanmar or Burma"], Saturday, 23 April 2016</ref>

The country's official full name is "Republic of the Union of Myanmar" ({{lang-my-Mymr|ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်}}, ''{{transl|my|Pyihtaungsu Thamada Myanma Naingngantaw}}'', {{IPA-my|pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀|pron}}). Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form "Union of Burma" instead.{{r|World Factbook}}<ref name="NCGUB">{{cite web |url=http://www.ncgub.net/ |title=NCGUB |publisher=National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma |access-date=3 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909080518/http://ncgub.net/ |archive-date=9 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In English, the country is popularly known as either ''Burma'' or ''Myanmar''. In Burmese, the pronunciation depends on the [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]] used and is either ''{{transl|my|Bama}}'' ({{IPA-my|bəmà|pron}}) or ''{{transl|my|Myamah}}'' ({{IPA-my|mjəmà|pron}}).<ref name="Houtman1999" /> The name ''Burma'' has been in use in English since the 18th century.

Official United States policy retains ''Burma'' as the country's name although the [[United States Department of State|State Department]]'s website lists the country as ''Burma (Myanmar)''.<ref name="USNaming">{{cite news |title=Burma or Myanmar? Obama calls it both on visit |url= http://asiancorrespondent.com/92211/burma-or-myanmar-obama-calls-it-both-on-visit// |agency=[[Associated Press]] |newspaper=[[Asian Correspondent]] |publisher=Hybrid News Limited |location=Bristol, England |date=19 November 2012 |access-date=19 November 2012 |quote=Yangon, Burma (AP) – Officially at least, America still calls this Southeast Asian nation Burma, the favoured appellation of dissidents and pro-democracy activists who opposed the former military junta's move to summarily change its name 23 years ago.}} {{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/19/burma-myanmar-obama-name-visit|date=19 November 2012|newspaper=The Guardian|title=Burma v Myanmar – what's in a name? Obama plays it safe during historic visit|author=Jason Burke}} {{cite web |url=https://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1077.html |title=Burma (Myanmar) |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |access-date=13 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020073109/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1077.html |archive-date=20 October 2013 }}</ref> The CIA's ''[[The World Factbook|World Factbook]]'' lists the country as ''Burma'' {{as of|2021|February|lc=yes}}.{{r|World Factbook}} The [[government of Canada]] has in the past used ''Burma'',<ref name="Dittmer" /> such as in its 2007 legislation imposing sanctions<ref>{{cite web|url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2007-285/FullText.html|title=Special Economic Measures (Burma) Regulations|website=Government of Canada – Justice Laws Website|date=25 June 2018|access-date=15 November 2018}}</ref> but as of August 2020 generally uses ''Myanmar''.<ref>{{cite web|website=Government of Canada – Global Affairs Canada|access-date=15 November 2018|title=Canada and Myanmar relations|url=http://international.gc.ca/world-monde/myanmar/relations.aspx?lang=eng|archive-date=20 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120040924/http://international.gc.ca/world-monde/myanmar/relations.aspx?lang=eng|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Czech Republic officially uses ''Myanmar'', although its [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Czech Republic)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] uses both ''Myanmar'' and ''Burma'' on its website.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic provides CZK 2.5 million of immediate assistance to flood victims in Myanmar/Burma |url=http://www.mzv.cz/yangon/en/the_ministry_of_foreign_affairs_of_the.html |access-date=8 November 2015 |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic]] |date=7 August 2015}}</ref> The [[United Nations]] uses ''Myanmar'', as do the ASEAN, Australia,<ref>{{cite web |title=Countries, economies and regions – Myanmar |url=http://dfat.gov.au/geo/myanmar/Pages/myanmar.aspx |publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australian Government |access-date=14 September 2016}}</ref> Russia, Germany,<ref>{{cite news |title=Burma vs. Myanmar: What's in a Name |url=http://www.dw.de/burma-vs-myanmar-whats-in-a-name/a-2804762 |access-date=2 August 2013 |newspaper=DW|date=1 September 2007}}</ref> China, India, Bangladesh, Norway,<ref>{{cite news |last=Mudditt|first=Jassica|title=Burma or Myanmar: Will the US make the switch?|url=http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/special-features/153-sanctions-to-sucess/3187-burma-or-myanmar-will-the-us-make-the-switch.html |access-date=2 August 2013|date=19 November 2012}}</ref> Japan<ref name="Dittmer">{{cite book |title=Burma Or Myanmar? The Struggle for National Identity |last=Dittmer |first=Lowell |year=2010 |page=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aoHP2Q2I1p4C&q=9789814313643&pg=PA2|publisher=World Scientific |isbn=9789814313643}}</ref> and Switzerland.<ref>{{cite web|title=Representations and travel advice – Myanmar |url=https://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/en/home/laender-reise-information/myanmar.html |publisher=Federal Department of Foreign Affairs |access-date=14 September 2016}}</ref> Most English-speaking international news media refer to the country by the name ''Myanmar'', including the [[BBC]],<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-12990563 |publisher=BBC News| title=Myanmar profile | date=16 July 2013}}</ref> [[CNN]],<ref>{{cite news| url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/30/world/asia/myanmar-fast-facts | publisher=CNN | title=Myanmar Fast Facts | date=30 July 2013}}</ref> [[Al Jazeera]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia-pacific/2013/07/201372271935496428.html |title=Myanmar blast hits anti-Muslim monk's event – Asia-Pacific |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=22 July 2013}}</ref> [[Reuters]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/places/myanmar |title=Myanmar |work=Reuters |date=9 February 2009}}</ref> and the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] (ABC)/[[Radio Australia]].<ref name="ABCRA">{{cite news |last1=Woodley |first1=Naomi |title=Carr apprehensive about Rohingyas' future in Myanmar |url=http://www.abc.net.au/am/content/2013/s3801497.htm |access-date=14 September 2016 |work=AM|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|date=12 July 2013}} {{cite news |title=Aung San Suu Kyi arrives in Thailand for official visit |url=http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/international/2016-06-23/aung-san-suu-kyi-arrives-in-thailand-for-official-visit/1593108 |access-date=14 September 2016 |publisher=Radio Australia |date=23 June 2016}}</ref>

Myanmar is known with a name deriving from ''Burma'' as opposed to ''Myanmar'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], and [[Greek language|Greek]] – ''Birmania'' being the local version of ''Burma'' in the Spanish language, for example. Myanmar used to be known as ''Birmânia'' in Portuguese, and as ''Birmanie'' in French.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ambafrance-mm.org/Birmanie-ou-Myanmar-Le-vrai-faux |title='Birmanie ou Myanmar ? Le vrai faux débat francophone' – La France en Birmanie |publisher=Ambafrance-mm.org |access-date=13 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408202934/http://www.ambafrance-mm.org/Birmanie-ou-Myanmar-Le-vrai-faux |archive-date=8 April 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> As in the past, French-language media today consistently use ''Birmanie''.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://tempsreel.nouvelobs.com/topnews/20170904.AFP9687/birmanie-87-000-rohingyas-refugies-au-bangladesh-en-dix-jours-selon-l-onu.html |title=Birmanie: 87.000 Rohingyas réfugiés au Bangladesh en dix jours, selon l'ONU |magazine=L'Obs |date=4 September 2017 |access-date=9 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tempsreel.nouvelobs.com/tag/birmanie|title=L'actualité sur Birmanie par L'Obs|website=L'Obs}}</ref>

There is no established pronunciation of the English name ''Myanmar'', and at least nine different pronunciations exist. Those with two syllables are listed as more common by major UK and US dictionaries except Collins: {{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|j|æ|n|ˈ|m|ɑːr}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|j|æ|n|m|ɑːr}}, {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Myanmar.ogg|ˌ|m|j|ɑː|n|ˈ|m|ɑːr}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|j|ɑː|n|m|ɑːr}}. Dictionaries and other sources also report pronunciations with three syllables {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|iː|.|ə|n|m|ɑːr}}, {{IPAc-en|m|i|ˈ|æ|n|m|ɑːr}}, {{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|aɪ|.|ə|n|ˈ|m|ɑːr}}, {{IPAc-en|m|aɪ|ˈ|ɑː|n|m|ɑːr}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|aɪ|.|æ|n|m|ɑːr}}.<ref name="Myanmar">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/magazinemonitor/2007/09/how_to_say_myanmar.shtml|title=How to say Myanmar|work=Magazine Monitor|series=An occasional guide to the words and names in the news from Martha Figueroa-Clark of the [[BBC]] Pronunciation Unit|publisher=BBC|date=26 September 2007|author=Martha Figueroa-Clark}} {{cite web |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/myanmar |title=Definition of MYANMAR by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico.com (British & World English) |publisher=Oxford Dictionaries |access-date=29 April 2021}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Myanmar |title=Myanmar |publisher=American Heritage Dictionary |access-date=29 April 2021}} {{cite dictionary |author=Thackrah, J. R. |url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/myanmar |title=Definition of Myanmar |dictionary=Collins English Dictionary |access-date=1 September 2012}} {{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/myanmar?show=0&t=1345589109 |title=Myanmar – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |access-date=1 September 2012}} {{cite book |title=Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society | last=Ammon | first=Ulrich | year=2004 | edition=2nd | volume=Volume 3/3 | isbn=978-3-11-018418-1 | publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LMZm0w0k1c4C&pg=PA2012 | page=2012}}</ref>

Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As [[John Wells]] explains, the English spellings of both Myanmar and Burma assume a non-rhotic variety of English, in which the letter r before a consonant or finally serves merely to indicate a long vowel: [ˈmjænmɑː, ˈbɜːmə]. So the pronunciation of the last syllable of Myanmar as [mɑːr] or of Burma as [bɜːrmə] by some speakers in the UK and all in North America is in fact a [[spelling pronunciation]] based on a misunderstanding of non-rhotic spelling conventions. The final ''r'' in ''Myanmar'' was not intended for pronunciation and is there to ensure that the final a is pronounced with the [[broad a|broad ''ah'']] ({{IPAc-en|ɑː}}) in "father". If the Burmese name {{lang-my|မြန်မာ|label=none}} {{IPA-my|mjəmà||}} were spelled "Myanma" in English, this would be pronounced {{IPAc-en|ə}} at the end by all English speakers. If it were spelled "Myanmah", the end would be pronounced {{IPAc-en|ɑː}} by all English speakers.

== History ==

=== Prehistory ===

[[File:Pyu Realm.png|thumb|[[Pyu city-states]] {{circa|8th century}}; [[Bagan|Pagan]] is shown for comparison only and is not contemporary]]

Archaeological evidence shows that ''[[Homo erectus]]'' lived in the region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no more ''erectus'' finds after 75,000 years ago.<ref name="BLibConfOBMS2015">{{cite web|author1=Win Naing Tun|title=Prehistory to Protohistory of Myanmar: A Perspective of Historical Geography|url=http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs21/History/Win-Naing-Tun-2015-Prehistory_to_Protohistory_of_Myanmar_A_Perspective_of_Historical_Geography-en.pdf|publisher=Myanmar Environment Institute|access-date=22 November 2016|page=1|date=24 July 2015|quote=Homo erectus had lived in Myanmar 750,000 years ago}} {{cite book|last=Bowman|first=John Stewart Bowman|title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture|year=2013|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-50004-3|page=476|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYoHOqC7Yx4C}}</ref> The first evidence of ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' is dated to about 25,000 BP with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Schaarschmidt|first1=Maria|last2=Fu|first2=Xiao|last3=Li|first3=Bo|last4=Marwick|first4=Ben|last5=Khaing|first5=Kyaw|last6=Douka|first6=Katerina|last7=Roberts|first7=Richard G.|title=pIRIR and IR-RF dating of archaeological deposits at Badahlin and Gu Myaung Caves – First luminescence ages for Myanmar|journal=Quaternary Geochronology|volume=49|pages=262–270|date=January 2018|doi=10.1016/j.quageo.2018.01.001|url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/smhpapers1/425}}</ref> Evidence of [[Neolithic]] age domestication of plants and animals and the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime between 10,000 and 6,000 BCE has been discovered in the form of [[cave painting]]s in [[Padah-Lin Caves]].<ref>{{cite web | last=Cooler | first=Richard M. | title=The Art and Culture of Burma (Chapter 1) | year=2002 | url = http://www.seasite.niu.edu/burmese/cooler/BurmaArt_TOC.htm | publisher=Northern Illinois University | location=DeKalb}}</ref>

The [[Bronze Age]] arrived {{circa|1500 BCE}} when people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so.<ref>[[#Myint-U|Myint-U]], p. 37</ref> Human remains and artefacts from this era were discovered in [[Monywa District]] in the [[Sagaing Region]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myanmars.net/myanmar-travel/myanmar-mandalay/monywa.htm |title=Skeletal Remains of Nyaunggan, Budalin Township, Monywa District, Sagaing Division |author=Yee Yee Aung |publisher=Perspective July 2002 |access-date=7 October 2008 }}</ref> The [[Iron Age]] began around 500 BCE with the emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay.<ref>[[#Myint-U|Myint-U]], p. 45</ref> Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements of large villages and small towns that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BCE and 200 CE.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hudson|first=Bob|title=A Pyu Homeland in the Samon Valley: a new theory of the origins of Myanmar's early urban system|url=http://acl.arts.usyd.edu.au/~hudson/BH2005Jan.pdf|journal=Myanmar Historical Commission Golden Jubilee International Conference|date=March 2005|page=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126021929/http://acl.arts.usyd.edu.au/~hudson/BH2005Jan.pdf|archive-date=26 November 2013}}</ref> Iron Age Burmese cultures also had influences from outside sources such as India and [[Thailand]], as seen in their funerary practices concerning child burials. This indicates some form of communication between groups in Myanmar and other places, possibly through trade.<ref>Coupey, A. S. (2008). Infant and child burials in the Samon valley, Myanmar. In Archaeology in Southeast Asia, from Homo Erectus to the living traditions: choice of papers from the 11th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, 25–29 September 2006, Bougon, France</ref>

=== Early city-states ===

Around the second century BCE the first-known [[city-state]]s emerged in central Myanmar. The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu people, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant, from present-day [[Yunnan]].<ref name=EarlyYunnan>{{cite book|last=Hall|first=D.G.E.|title=Burma|edition=3rd|year=1960|publisher=Hutchinson University Library|isbn=978-1-4067-3503-1|pages=8–10}} {{cite book|last=Moore|first=Elizabeth H.|title=Early Landscapes of Myanmar|year=2007|publisher=River Books|location=Bangkok|isbn=978-974-9863-31-2|page=236}}</ref> The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organisation.<ref>[[#Myint-U|Myint-U]], pp. 51–52</ref>

By the 9th century, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu came under repeated attacks from [[Nanzhao]] between the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century the [[Bamar people]] founded a small settlement at [[Bagan]]. It was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century, when it grew in authority and grandeur.<ref>[[#Lieberman|Lieberman]], pp. 90–91</ref>

=== Pagan Kingdom ===

{{see also|Ava Kingdom|Hanthawaddy Kingdom|Kingdom of Mrauk U|Shan States}}

[[File:Bagan, Burma.jpg|thumb|[[Pagoda]]s and [[kyaung]]s in present-day [[Bagan]], the capital of the [[Pagan Kingdom]]]]

[[Pagan Kingdom|Pagan]] gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s when [[Anawrahta]] founded the [[Pagan Kingdom]], the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the [[Khmer Empire]] were two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia.<ref>[[#Lieberman|Lieberman]], p. 24</ref> The [[Burmese language]] and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the [[Pyu language (Burma)|Pyu]], [[Mon language|Mon]] and [[Pali]] norms by the late 12th century.<ref name=mha-63-65>{{cite book |last=Htin Aung |first=Maung |title=A History of Burma |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofburma00htin |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=New York / London |year=1967 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofburma00htin/page/63 63–65]}}</ref> Theravada [[Buddhism]] slowly began to spread to the village level, although [[Vajrayana|Tantric]], [[Mahayana]], [[Hinduism]], and [[Burmese folk religion|folk religion]] remained heavily entrenched. Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000 [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions in the late 13th century toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287.<ref name="mha-63-65" />

[[File:MysticalMraukU.jpg|thumb|Temples at [[Mrauk U]].]]

Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, [[Shan people|Shan migrants]] who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competing [[Shan States]] came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until the late 14th century when two sizeable powers, [[Kingdom of Ava|Ava Kingdom]] and [[Hanthawaddy Kingdom]], emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until the [[Kingdom of Mrauk U]] unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437. The kingdom was a protectorate of the [[Bengal Sultanate]] at different time periods.<ref name=kh-2-25>Maung Maung Tin, Vol. 2, p. 25</ref>

In the 14th and 15th centuries, Ava fought [[Forty Years' War|wars of unification]] but could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Having held off Ava, the [[Mon people|Mon]]-speaking Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555.

Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, [[Bago, Myanmar|Hanthawaddy]] and the Shan states were all [[Multiracial people|multi-ethnic]] polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age for [[Culture of Myanmar|Burmese culture]]. [[Burmese literature]] "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest [[Burmese chronicles|pan-Burma chronicles]] emerged.<ref>[[#Lieberman|Lieberman]], p. 134</ref> [[Bago, Myanmar|Hanthawaddy]] monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to the rest of the country.<ref>[[#Myint-U|Myint-U]], pp. 64–65</ref> Many splendid temples of Mrauk U were built during this period.

=== Taungoo and Konbaung ===

[[File:Map of Taungoo Empire (1580).png|thumb|[[First Toungoo Empire|Toungoo Empire]] under [[Bayinnaung]] in 1580]]

Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, through the efforts of [[Toungoo dynasty|Taungoo]], a former vassal state of Ava. Taungoo's young, ambitious King [[Tabinshwehti]] defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in the [[Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War (1534–1541)|Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War]]. His successor [[Bayinnaung]] went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, [[Lan Na]], Manipur, [[Mong Mao]], the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]], [[Lan Xang]] and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese rule]] at [[Thanlyin]] (Syriam).

The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored a smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing [[Lower Myanmar]], [[Upper Myanmar]], [[Shan States|Shan states]], [[Lan Na]] and upper [[Tenasserim Division|Tenasserim]]. The restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features continued well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated [[Meitei people|Meithei]] raids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded the [[Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom]]. Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty.[[File:Shwedagon pagoda.jpg|thumb|A British 1825 lithograph of [[Shwedagon Pagoda]] shows British occupation during the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]].]]

After the fall of Ava, the [[Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War]] involved one resistance group under [[Alaungpaya]] defeating the Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759 he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur and driven out the [[France|French]] and the [[United Kingdom|British]], who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos and fought and won the [[Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767)|Burmese–Siamese War]] against [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]] and the [[Sino-Burmese War (1765–1769)|Sino-Burmese War]] against [[Qing dynasty|Qing China]].<ref>[[#Lieberman|Lieberman]], pp. 184–187</ref>

With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770 and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in a stalemate, exchanging [[Tenasserim Island|Tenasserim]] (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, King [[Bodawpaya]] turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British India]].<ref>[[#Myint-U|Myint-U]], p. 109</ref>

The breadth of this empire was short-lived. In 1826, [[Burma campaign|Burma]] lost Arakan, [[Manipur]], Assam and Tenasserim to the British in the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]]. In 1852, the [[British Empire|British]] easily seized Lower Burma in the [[Second Anglo-Burmese War]]. King [[Mindon Min]] tried to modernise the kingdom and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the [[Karenni States]]. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of [[French Indochina]], annexed the remainder of the country in the [[Third Anglo-Burmese War]] in 1885.

Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females).<ref>[[#Lieberman|Lieberman]], pp. 202–206</ref> Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.

=== British Burma (1885–1948) ===

[[File:British forces arrival mandalay1885.jpg|thumb|The landing of British forces in Mandalay after the last of the [[Anglo-Burmese War]]s, which resulted in the abdication of the last Burmese monarch, King [[Thibaw Min]]]]

[[File:IND 004723.jpg|thumb|British troops firing a [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]] on the [[Mawchi]] road, July 1944]]

In the 18th century, Burmese rulers, whose country had not previously been of particular interest to European traders, sought to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was the [[East India Company|British East India]] Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next sixty years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises, known collectively as the [[Anglo-Burmese Wars]], continued until [[United Kingdom|Britain]] proclaimed control over most of Burma.<ref>{{cite book |last=Baten |first=Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2016 |page=287 |isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref> With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being [[Third Anglo-Burmese War#Annexation and resistance|annexed]] on 1 January 1886.

Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the [[Anglo-Burmese people|Anglo-Burmese]] community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. [[Yangon|Rangoon]] became the capital of British Burma and an important port between [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] and [[Singapore]]. Burmese resentment was strong, and was vented in violent riots that paralysed Rangoon on occasion until the 1930s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Collis |first=Maurice |title=Trials in Burma |year=1945}}</ref> Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions such as the British refusal to remove shoes when they entered pagodas. [[Bhikkhu|Buddhist monks]] became the vanguards of the independence movement. [[U Wisara]], an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest against a rule that forbade him to wear his Buddhist robes while imprisoned.<ref>{{cite book |first=Heinz |last=Bechert |title=The World of Buddhism-Buddhist Monks and Nuns in Society and Culture |url=https://archive.org/details/worldofbuddhismb00bech |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York City |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-87196-982-8}}</ref>

On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Great Britain, and [[Ba Maw]] became the first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule, and he opposed the participation of Great Britain, and by extension Burma, in [[World War II]]. He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before [[Japan during World War II|Japan formally entered the war]], [[Aung San]] formed the [[Burma Independence Army]] in Japan.

As a major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II by the [[Japanese invasion of Burma|Japanese invasion]]. Within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon, and the British administration had collapsed. A [[Japanese occupation of Burma|Burmese Executive Administration]] headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. [[Orde Wingate|Wingate]]'s British [[Chindits]] were formed into [[long-range penetration]] groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines.<ref>{{cite news|author=Bennett, Will |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/chindits-remember-their-fallen-comrades-1597019.html |title=Chindits remember their fallen comrades |work=The Independent |date=20 August 1995 |access-date=20 November 2012 |location=London}}</ref> A similar [[United States|American]] unit, [[Merrill's Marauders]], followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/vets/stories/cbi-marauders.html |title=China-Burma-India: Merrill's Marauders. Veterans History Project, Library of Congress |publisher=Loc.gov |date=14 November 2012 |access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a [[Burma campaign 1944|series of offensives]] that led to the [[Burma campaign 1944–45|end of Japanese rule]] in July 1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma with 1,700 prisoners taken.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Towle, Philip |author-link1 = Philip Towle |author2=Kosuge, Margaret |author3=Kibata, Yōichi |year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ktCv32ysz0AC&pg=PA48|title=Japanese prisoners of war |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |page=48 |isbn=978-1-85285-192-7}}</ref> Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army.<ref>{{cite book|first=Ian|last=Fellowes-Gordon|year=1971|title=The Battle For Naw Seng's Kingdom: General Stilwel}}</ref> The [[Burma Independence Army|Burma National Army]] and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Overall, 170,000 to 250,000 Burmese civilians died during World War II.<ref>Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–2000. 2nd Ed. 2002 {{ISBN|0-7864-1204-6}}. p. 556 Werner Gruhl, Imperial Japan's World War Two, 1931–1945 Transaction 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-7658-0352-8}} (Werner Gruhl is former chief of NASA's Cost and Economic Analysis Branch with a lifetime interest in the study of the First and Second World Wars.)</ref>

Following [[World War II]], [[Aung San]] negotiated the [[Panglong Agreement]] with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as a unified state. [[Aung Zan Wai]], Pe Khin, [[Bo Hmu Aung]], Sir Maung Gyi, Dr. Sein Mya Maung, [[Myoma U Than Kywe]] were among the negotiators of the historic [[Panglong Conference]] negotiated with Bamar leader General [[Aung San]] and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/interview/author-discusses-martyrs-day-assassination-of-aung-san.html|title=Author Discusses Martyrs' Day Assassination of Aung San|work=The Irrawaddy|author=Moe, Kyaw Zwa|date=August 1977}}</ref> [[Burmese Martyrs' Day|assassinated Aung San]] and several cabinet members.<ref>{{cite book|first=Gustaaf|last=Houtman|year=1999|title=Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics: Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy|isbn=978-4-87297-748-6|publisher=Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa|location=Tokyo}}</ref>

=== Independence (1948–1962) ===

[[File:Sao Shwe Thaik and Hubert Elvin Rance.jpg|thumb|British governor [[Hubert Elvin Rance]] and Sao Shwe Thaik at the flag-raising ceremony on 4 January 1948 ([[Independence Day of Burma]])]]

On [[Independence Day (Myanmar)|4 January 1948]], the nation became an independent republic, under the terms of the [[Burma Independence Act 1947]]. The new country was named the ''Union of Burma'', with [[Sao Shwe Thaik]] as its first president and [[U Nu]] as its first prime minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. A [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] parliament was formed, consisting of a [[Chamber of Deputies (Burma)|Chamber of Deputies]] and a [[Chamber of Nationalities]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.dvb.no/e_docs/511947_con.htm|title=The Constitution of the Union of Burma|access-date=7 July 2006|year=1947|publisher=DVB| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615072018/http://english.dvb.no/e_docs/511947_con.htm|archive-date=15 June 2006}}</ref> and [[Multi-party system|multi-party]] elections were held in [[1951–52 Burmese general election|1951–1952]], [[1956 Burmese general election|1956]] and [[1960 Burmese general election|1960]].

The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the [[Panglong Agreement]], which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.<ref>{{cite book |first=Martin |last=Smith |year=1991 |title=Burma -Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity |publisher=Zed Books |location=London and New Jersey |pages=42–43}}</ref>

In 1961, [[U Thant]], the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former secretary to the prime minister, was elected [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]], a position he held for ten years.<ref>{{cite journal|volume=14|issue=9|url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=7610

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314141301/http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=7610

|archive-date=14 March 2012

|author=Zaw, Aung

|title=Can Another Asian Fill U Thant's Shoes?|journal=The Irrawaddy |date=September 2006}}</ref> Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was secretary-general was [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] (daughter of Aung San), who went on to become winner of the 1991 [[Nobel Peace Prize]].

When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d’état in 1962. Though incorporated in the 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term ‘[[federalism]]’ as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/the-united-states-of-myanmar/article18525853.ece |title=The united states of Myanmar? |newspaper=The Hindu |date=23 May 2017 |access-date=9 September 2017|last1=Kipgen |first1=Nehginpao }}</ref>

=== Military rule (1962–2011) ===

On 2 March 1962, the military led by General [[Ne Win]] [[1962 Burmese coup d'état|took control of Burma through a coup d'état]], and the government had been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a [[Union Revolutionary Council|revolutionary council]] headed by the general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were [[Nationalization|nationalised]] or brought under government control under the [[Burmese Way to Socialism]],<ref name="thantmyintu">[[#Myint-U|Myint-U]]</ref> which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and [[Economic planning|central planning]].

A new [[Constitution of Myanmar|constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma]] was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country was ruled as a [[One-party state|one-party system]], with the general and other military officers resigning and ruling through the [[Burma Socialist Programme Party]] (BSPP).<ref name="christinafink">{{cite book |first=Christina |last=Fink |year=2001 |title=Living Silence: Burma under Military Rule |isbn=978-1-85649-926-2 |publisher=White Lotus |location=Bangkok |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/livingsilence00chri }}</ref> During this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most impoverished countries.<ref name="ruin">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/sep/28/burma.uk |title=The Burma road to ruin |work=The Guardian |location=London |first=Mark |last=Tallentire |date=28 September 2007}}</ref> There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years, and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up [[1962 Rangoon University protests|demonstrations at Rangoon University]], killing 15 students.<ref name="thantmyintu" /> In 1974, the military violently suppressed [[U Thant funeral crisis|anti-government protests]] at the funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force.<ref name="christinafink" />

[[File:8888 Uprising.jpg|right|thumb|Protesters gathering in central [[Rangoon]], 1988.]]

In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the [[8888 Uprising]]. Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General [[Saw Maung]] staged a coup d'état and formed the [[State Peace and Development Council|State Law and Order Restoration Council]] (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/pyithu_hluttaw_election_law.htm |title=Pyithu Hluttaw Election Law |access-date=11 July 2006 |date=31 May 1989 |work=State Law and Order Restoration Council |publisher=iBiblio.org}}</ref> SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 18 June 1989 by enacting the adaptation of the expression law.

In May 1990, the government held free multiparty elections for the first time in almost 30 years, and the [[National League for Democracy]] (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won<ref name="burmese_vote_1990_05_29_nytimes_com">Erlanger, Steven:

[https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/29/world/burmese-vote-rejects-army-rule-with-big-victory-for-opposition.html "Burmese Vote Rejects Army Rule With Big Victory for Opposition,"], May 29, 1990, ''The New York Times'', retrieved March 1, 2021</ref> [[1990 Myanmar general election|earning 392 out of a total 492 seats]] (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/Elections-02.htm |title=1990 Multi-party Democracy General Elections |author=Han, Khin Kyaw |date=1 February 2003 |work=National League for Democracy |publisher=iBiblio.org}}</ref> and continued to rule the nation as SLORC until 1997, and then as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011. On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near [[Pyinmana]] in November 2005, officially named the new capital [[Naypyidaw]], meaning "city of the kings".<ref>{{cite news |title=Burma's new capital stages parade |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4848408.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=27 March 2006 |access-date=24 June 2006}}</ref>

[[File:2007 Myanmar protests 7.jpg|thumb|Protesters in [[Yangon]] during the [[2007 Saffron Revolution]] with a banner that reads ''non-violence: national movement'' in [[Burmese language|Burmese]]. In the background is [[Shwedagon Pagoda]].]]

[[File:Cyclone Nargis -Myanmar-3May2008.jpg|thumb|[[Cyclone Nargis]] in southern Myanmar, May 2008.]]

In August 2007, an increase in the price of fuel led to the [[Saffron Revolution]] led by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government.<ref name=PetrolSaffronRevolution>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6947251.stm |title=Burma leaders double fuel prices |publisher=BBC News|date=15 August 2007|access-date=20 November 2012}} {{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article2521951.ece|title=Military junta threatens monks in Burma|location=London|work=The Times|date=24 September 2007|access-date=27 April 2010|first1=Jenny|last1=Booth}} {{cite web|url=http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=85644|title=100,000 Protestors Flood Streets of Rangoon in "Saffron Revolution"}} {{cite book|author=Fink, Christina|chapter=The Moment of the Monks: Burma, 2007|editor-link=Adam Roberts (scholar)|editor=Adam Roberts|editor2=Timothy Garton Ash|title=Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-955201-6|pages=354–70|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BxOQKrCe7UUC&q=Civil+resistance+and+power+politics}} {{cite news|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/4081D23F-F1A4-46AF-BA50-D47FA2B7A4AE.htm|title=UN envoy warns of Myanmar crisis|publisher=English.aljazeera.net|access-date=20 November 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228090420/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/4081D23F-F1A4-46AF-BA50-D47FA2B7A4AE.htm|archive-date=28 February 2008}}</ref> The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007, with reports of barricades at the [[Shwedagon Pagoda]] and monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. The military crackdown against unarmed [[protest]]ers was widely condemned as part of the [[international reactions to the Saffron Revolution]] and led to an increase in economic sanctions against the [[Politics of Myanmar|Burmese Government]].

In May 2008, [[Cyclone Nargis]] caused extensive damage in the densely populated rice-farming delta of the [[Ayeyarwady Region|Irrawaddy Division]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Fountain |first=Henry |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/05/06/asia/AS-GEN-Myanmar-Cyclone.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011025523/http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/05/06/asia/AS-GEN-Myanmar-Cyclone.php |archive-date=11 October 2008 |title=Aid arrives in Myanmar as death toll passes 22,000, but worst-hit area still cut off – |work=International Herald Tribune |date=6 May 2008}}</ref> It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damages totalled to 10 billion US dollars, and as many as 1 million were left homeless.<ref>{{cite news

|url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/695277601/Official-UN-planes-land-in-Myanmar-with-aid-after-cyclone.html?pg=all

|title=Official: UN plane lands in Myanmar with aid after cyclone

|agency=Associated Press

|access-date=6 August 2015}}</ref> In the critical days following this disaster, Myanmar's [[Isolationism|isolationist]] government was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts.<ref>{{cite news |author1=Stevenson, Rachel |author2=Borger, Julian |author3=MacKinnon, Ian |name-list-style=amp |title=Burma snubs foreign aid workers |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/may/09/cyclonenargis.burma4 |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=9 May 2008 }}</ref> [[Humanitarian aid]] was requested, but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Burma: imperialists exploit natural disaster to promote regime change|url=http://www.cpgb-ml.org/index.php?art=410&secName=proletarian&subName=display|publisher=Proletarian Online|date=June 2008}}</ref>

In early August 2009, [[2009 Kokang incident|a conflict broke out]] in Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including the [[Kokang Chinese|Han Chinese]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/32596296 |title=Fighting forces up to 30,000 to flee Myanmar |work=NBC News |date=28 August 2009 |access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> [[Wa people|Wa]], and [[Jingpo people|Kachin]].<ref name="BangkokPost">{{cite news |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2009-08-27-more-fighting-feared-as-thousands-flee-burma |title=More fighting feared as thousands flee Burma | work=[[Bangkok Post]] |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |date=27 August 2009 |access-date=28 August 2009}}</ref><ref name="NYTrefugees">{{cite news |work=The New York Times |last=Fuller |first=Thomas |date=28 August 2009 |access-date=28 August 2009 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/29/world/asia/29myanmar.html?ref=world |title=Refugees Flee to China as Fighting Breaks Out in Myanmar}}</ref> During 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan in neighbouring China.<ref name="BangkokPost" /><ref name="NYTrefugees" /><ref>{{cite news |publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8223430.stm |title=Thousands Flee Burma Violence |date=26 August 2009 |access-date=28 August 2009}}</ref>

=== Civil wars ===

[[Civil war]]s have been a constant feature of Myanmar's socio-political landscape since the attainment of independence in 1948. These wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the areas surrounding the ethnically Bamar central districts of the country serving as the primary geographical setting of conflict. Foreign journalists and visitors require a special travel permit to visit the areas in which Myanmar's civil wars continue.<ref>{{cite web|title=Restricted Areas in Burma|url=http://www.tourismburma.com/restricted-areas-in-burma/|publisher=Tourism Burma|access-date=27 March 2013|year=2013|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102230338/http://www.tourismburma.com/restricted-areas-in-burma/|archive-date=2 January 2013}}</ref>

In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar included the [[Kachin conflict]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Ethnic Rifts Strain Myanmar as It Moves Toward Democracy |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/05/world/asia/ethnic-rifts-strain-myanmar-as-it-moves-toward-democracy.html?pagewanted=1&ref=world |newspaper=The New York Times|date=4 April 2013|author=Fuller, Thomas }}</ref> between the Pro-Christian [[Kachin Independence Army]] and the government;<ref name=ChristianVsGovt>{{cite news|title=Displaced by fighting, villagers take shelter in Hpakant|url=http://www.dvb.no/news/displaced-by-fighting-villagers-take-shelter-in-hpakant/23955|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127023044/http://www.dvb.no/news/displaced-by-fighting-villagers-take-shelter-in-hpakant/23955|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 November 2012|access-date=27 March 2013|newspaper=Democratic Voice of Burma|date=25 September 2012|author=Nadi, Nang Mya}} {{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/peopleandpower/2012/10/20121031172469210.html|title=Blood and Gold: Inside Burma's Hidden War|publisher=Al Jazeera |date= 4 October 2012}}</ref> a civil war between the [[Rohingya people|Rohingya]] Muslims and the government and non-government groups in [[Rakhine State]];<ref>{{cite news|title=About 75,000 Rohingyas in Myanmar camps: Refugee International|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/about-75000-rohingyas-in-myanmar-camps-refugee-international/article3948606.ece|access-date=27 March 2013|newspaper=The Hindu|date=29 September 2012|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> and a conflict between the [[Shan people|Shan]],<ref name=ShanVsGovt>{{cite web|title=Supporting Human Rights in Burma|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2012/11/09/supporting-human-rights-burma|access-date=27 March 2013|author=Power, Samantha |via=[[NARA|National Archives]]|work=[[whitehouse.gov]]|date=9 November 2012}} {{cite news| url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/10/201210285232434409.html|title=Myanmar Shan refugees struggle at Thai border|publisher=Al Jazeera|date= 2 October 2012}}</ref> [[Lahu people|Lahu]], and [[Karen people|Karen]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Karen fighters and Burma Army soldiers killed over ceasefire breach|url=http://karennews.org/2012/03/karen-fighters-and-burma-army-soldiers-killed-over-ceasefire-breech.html/|access-date=27 March 2013|newspaper=Karen News|date=16 March 2012|author=Saw Khar Su Nyar (KIC)|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615153917/http://karennews.org/2012/03/karen-fighters-and-burma-army-soldiers-killed-over-ceasefire-breech.html/|archive-date=15 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/95008/MYANMAR-Karen-groups-cautious-on-peace-initiative |title=Myanmar: Karen groups cautious on peace initiative |agency=[[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]] |date= 5 March 2012}}</ref> minority groups, and the government in the eastern half of the country. In addition, [[al-Qaeda]] signalled an intention to become involved in Myanmar. In a video released on 3 September 2014, mainly addressed to India, the militant group's leader [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] said al-Qaeda had not forgotten the Muslims of Myanmar and that the group was doing "what they can to rescue you".<ref>{{cite news|title=Concern in India as Al Qaeda announces new India front|url=http://www.myanmarnews.net/index.php/sid/225407619|date=4 September 2014|access-date=6 September 2014|publisher=Myanmar News.Net}}</ref> In response, the military raised its level of alertness, while the Burmese Muslim Association issued a statement saying Muslims would not tolerate any threat to their motherland.<ref>{{cite news|title=Myanmar Muslim group rejects Al Qaeda statement |url=http://englishnews.thaipbs.or.th/myanmar-muslim-group-rejects-al-qaeda-statement/ |date=6 September 2014 |access-date=6 September 2014 |publisher=Myanmar News.Net }}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

Armed conflict between [[Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army|ethnic Chinese rebels]] and the [[Tatmadaw|Myanmar Armed Forces]] resulted in the [[2015 Kokang offensive|Kokang offensive]] in February 2015. The conflict had forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek shelter on the Chinese side of the border.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dvb.no/news/tens-thousands-flee-war-airstrikes-kokang-region/48271|title=Tens of thousands flee war, airstrikes in Kokang region|work=DVB Multimedia Group|access-date=31 March 2015|date=12 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328223618/http://www.dvb.no/news/tens-thousands-flee-war-airstrikes-kokang-region/48271|archive-date=28 March 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> During the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to the [[Kokang Chinese|ethnic Chinese]] rebels. Burmese officials have been historically "manipulated" and pressured by the Chinese government throughout Burmese modern history to create closer and binding ties with China, creating a Chinese satellite state in [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>"[http://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/kokang-02132015185129.html Myanmar Kokang Rebels Deny Receiving Chinese Weapons]". Radio Free Asia.</ref> However, uncertainties exist as clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups continue.

=== Democratic reforms ===

The goal of the [[2008 Myanmar constitutional referendum|Burmese constitutional referendum of 2008]], held on 10 May 2008, is the creation of a "discipline-flourishing democracy". As part of the referendum process, the name of the country was changed from the "Union of Myanmar" to the "Republic of the Union of Myanmar", and general elections were held under the new constitution in 2010. Observer accounts of the 2010 election describe the event as mostly peaceful; however, allegations of polling station irregularities were raised, and the United Nations (UN) and a number of Western countries condemned the elections as fraudulent.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2064470,00.html | title=The Slow Thaw of Burma's Notorious Military Junta |work=The Times |location=UK | access-date=1 September 2011 | author=Marshall, Andrew | date=11 April 2011}}</ref>

[[File:Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton at home of Aung San Suu Kyi.jpg|thumb|U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] and Secretary of State [[Hillary Clinton]] with [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] and her staff at her home in Yangon, 2012]]

The military-backed [[Union Solidarity and Development Party]] declared victory in the 2010 elections, stating that it had been favoured by 80 per cent of the votes; however, the claim was disputed by numerous pro-democracy opposition groups who asserted that the military regime had engaged in rampant fraud.<ref name="tni.org" /><ref>{{cite news |last=MacFarquhar |first=Neil |title=U.N. Doubts Fairness of Election in Myanmar |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/22/world/asia/22nations.html |work=The New York Times |date=21 October 2010}}</ref> One report documented 77 per cent as the official turnout rate of the election.<ref name="tni.org">{{cite web|title=A Changing Ethnic Landscape: Analysis of Burma's 2010 Polls|url=http://www.tni.org/briefing/changing-ethnic-landscape-analysis-burmas-2010-polls|work=Transnational Institute – Burma Project|publisher=TNI|access-date=27 March 2013|date=14 December 2010}}</ref> The [[military junta]] was dissolved on 30 March 2011.

Opinions differ whether the transition to [[liberal democracy]] is underway. According to some reports, the military's presence continues as the label "disciplined democracy" suggests. This label asserts that the Burmese military is allowing certain civil liberties while clandestinely institutionalising itself further into [[Politics of Myanmar|Burmese politics]]. Such an assertion assumes that reforms only occurred when the military was able to safeguard its own interests through the transition—here, "transition" does not refer to a transition to a liberal democracy but transition to a quasi-military rule.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bunte |first=M. |title=Burma's Transition to Quasi-Military Rule: From Rulers to Guardians? |journal=Armed Forces & Society |volume=40 |issue=4 |page=742 |year=2013 |s2cid=146890879 |doi=10.1177/0095327X13492943}}</ref>

Since the 2010 election, the government has embarked on a series of reforms to direct the country towards liberal democracy, a [[mixed economy]], and reconciliation, although doubts persist about the motives that underpin such reforms. The series of reforms includes the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the [[Myanmar National Human Rights Commission|National Human Rights Commission]], the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permit labour unions and strikes, a relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of currency practices.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15303968 | title=Obstacles lie ahead in Burma's bid for reform |publisher=BBC | date=19 November 2011 | access-date=20 November 2011 | author=Loyn, David }}</ref>

The impact of the post-election reforms has been observed in numerous areas, including [[ASEAN]]'s approval of Myanmar's bid for the position of [[ASEAN]] chair in 2014;<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cabellero-Anthony|first1=Mely|title="Myanmar's Chairmanship of ASEAN: Challenges and Opportunities", Myanmar's Growing Regional Role|journal=NBR Special Report|date=March 2014|url=http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=741}}</ref> the visit by [[United States Secretary of State]] [[Hillary Clinton]] in December 2011 for the encouragement of further progress, which was the first visit by a secretary of state in more than fifty years,<ref>{{cite news|title=Budding Friendship on Display as Clinton, Burma's Suu Kyi Meet Again|author=Hepler, Lauren|author2=Voorhees, Josh|url=http://slatest.slate.com/posts/2011/11/18/hillary_clinton_to_visit_myanmar_burma_first_trip_by_secretary_of_state_in_more_than_50_years.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617073614/http://slatest.slate.com/posts/2011/11/18/hillary_clinton_to_visit_myanmar_burma_first_trip_by_secretary_of_state_in_more_than_50_years.html|archive-date=17 June 2013|agency=[[Associated Press]]|newspaper=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |date=1 December 2011|quote=Wrapping up a historic three-day visit to Myanmar [Burma], the first by a secretary of state to the Southeast Asian nation in more than 50 years}}</ref> during which President [[Bill Clinton]] met with the Burmese president and former military commander [[Thein Sein]], as well as opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi;<ref name="Clinton">{{cite news |author=Myers, Steven Lee |title=Clinton Says U.S. Will Relax Some Restrictions on Myanmar |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/02/world/asia/us-will-relax-curbs-on-aid-to-myanmar.html | newspaper=The New York Times | date=2 December 2011 | page=A6 |access-date=15 May 2013}}</ref> and the participation of [[Aung San Suu Kyi]]'s [[National League for Democracy|NLD]] party in the 2012 by-elections, facilitated by the government's abolition of the laws that previously barred the [[National League for Democracy|NLD]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-15787052 | title=US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton to visit Burma |publisher=BBC | date=18 November 2011 | access-date=25 November 2011}}</ref> In the April 2012 [[2012 Myanmar by-elections|by-elections]], the NLD won 43 of the 45 available seats; previously an illegal organisation, the NLD had not won a single seat under the new constitution. The 2012 by-elections were also the first time that international representatives were allowed to monitor the voting process in Myanmar.<ref>{{cite news|last=Golluoglu|first=Esmer|title=Aung San Suu Kyi hails 'new era' for Burma after landslide victory|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/apr/02/aung-san-suu-kyi-new-era-burma?newsfeed=true|newspaper=The Guardian|date=4 February 2012|location=London}}</ref>

[[File:Burma en.png|thumb|upright=0.8|Map of Myanmar and its divisions, including [[Shan State]], [[Kachin State]], [[Rakhine State]] and [[Kayah State|Karen State]].]]

=== 2015 general elections ===

General elections [[2015 Myanmar general election|were held on 8 November 2015]]. These were the first openly contested elections held in Myanmar since the 1990 general election (which was annulled<ref name="landmark_elections_2015_12_03_bbc">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-33547036 "Myanmar's 2015 landmark elections explained,"] December 3, 2015, BBC News, retrieved March 1, 2021</ref>).The results gave the NLD an [[Supermajority|absolute majority]] of seats in both chambers of the [[Parliament|national parliament]], enough to ensure that its candidate would become president, while NLD leader [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] is constitutionally barred from the presidency.<ref name="landmark_elections_2015_12_03_bbc" /><ref name="national_league_wins_2015_11_13_bbc">{{cite news |title=Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy Wins Majority in Myanmar |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34805806 |access-date=13 November 2015 |publisher=BBC News|date=13 November 2015}}</ref>

The new parliament convened on 1 February 2016,<ref>{{cite web|title = Suu Kyi's novice MPs learn ropes in outgoing Myanmar parliament|url = http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asiapacific/suu-kyi-s-novice-mps/2464054.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160127170900/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asiapacific/suu-kyi-s-novice-mps/2464054.html|url-status=dead|archive-date = 27 January 2016|publisher = Channel NewsAsia|access-date = 28 January 2016}}</ref> and on 15 March 2016, [[Htin Kyaw]] was elected as the first non-military president since the military coup of 1962.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Moe|first1=Wae|last2=Ramzy|first2=Austin|title=Myanmar Lawmakers Name Htin Kyaw President, Affirming Civilian Rule|date=15 March 2016|newspaper=The New York Times|url=http://nyti.ms/1M4ac5P}}</ref> On 6 April 2016, [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] assumed the newly created role of [[State Counsellor of Myanmar|state counsellor]], a role akin to a [[Prime Minister of Myanmar|prime minister]].

=== 2020 elections and 2021 military coup d'etat ===

====Election and aftermath====

In Myanmar's 2020 parliamentary election,

the ostensibly ruling [[National League for Democracy|National League for Democracy (NLD)]], the party of State Counsellor [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], competed with various other smaller parties – particularly the military-affiliated [[Union Solidarity and Development Party|Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP)]]. Other parties and individuals allied with specific ethnic minorities also ran for office.<ref name="myanmar_election_2020_11_11_nytimes_com">[https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/11/world/asia/myanmar-election-aung-san-suu-kyi-results.html "Myanmar Election Delivers Another Decisive Win for Aung San Suu Kyi,"] November 11, 2020, ''The New York Times'', retrieved December 18, 2020</ref>

Suu Kyi's NLD won the [[2020 Myanmar general election]] on 8 November in a landslide, again winning supermajorities in both houses<ref name="myanmar_election_2020_11_11_nytimes_com" /><ref name="suu_kyis_party_wins_2020_11_13_bbc">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-54899170 "Myanmar: Aung San Suu Kyi's party wins majority in election,"] November 11, 2020, BBC News, retrieved December 18, 2020</ref>—winning 396 out of 476 elected seats in parliament.<ref name="commission_rejects_2021_01_29_apnews_com">[https://apnews.com/article/aung-san-suu-kyi-elections-myanmar-cc1b225b806c27dda748d3ab51d0e47f "Myanmar election commission rejects military’s fraud claims,"] January 29, 2021, [[Associated Press]], retrieved February 28, 2021</ref>

The USDP, regarded as a proxy for the military, suffered a "humiliating" defeat<ref name="crisis_in_myanmar_2021_01_31_reuters">[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-politics-explainer/explainer-crisis-in-myanmar-after-army-alleges-election-fraud-idUSKBN2A113H "Explainer: Crisis in Myanmar after army alleges election fraud,"] January 31, 2021, updated February 1, 2021, [[Reuters News Service]], retrieved February 28, 2021</ref><ref name="defeated_2020_11_12_irrawaddy_com">[https://www.irrawaddy.com/elections/military-backed-usdp-leaders-defeated-nld-myanmar-election.html "Military-Backed USDP Leaders Defeated by NLD in Myanmar Election,"] November 12, 2020, ''[[The Irrawaddy]],'' retrieved February 28, 2021</ref> – even worse than in 2015<ref name="defeated_2020_11_12_irrawaddy_com" /> – capturing only 33 of the 476 elected seats.<ref name="commission_rejects_2021_01_29_apnews_com" /><ref name="crisis_in_myanmar_2021_01_31_reuters" />

As the election results began emerging, the USDP rejected them, urging a new election with the military as observers.<ref name="myanmar_election_2020_11_11_nytimes_com" /><ref name="defeated_2020_11_12_irrawaddy_com" />

More than 90 other, smaller parties contested the vote, including more than 15 who complained of irregularities. However, election observers declared there were no major irregularities in the voting.<ref name="crisis_in_myanmar_2021_01_31_reuters" />

The military – arguing that it had found over 8 million irregularities in voter lists, in over 300 townships – called on Myanmar's [[Union Election Commission|Union Election Commission (UEC)]] and government to review the results, but the commission dismissed the claims for lack of any evidence.<ref name="commission_rejects_2021_01_29_apnews_com" /><ref name="myanmar_election_body_2021_01_28_irrawaddy_com">[https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-election-body-rejects-military-allegations-electoral-fraud.html "Myanmar Election Body Rejects Military Allegations of Electoral Fraud,"] January 28, 2021, ''[[The Irrawaddy]],'' retrieved February 6, 2021</ref>

The election commission declared that any irregularities were too few and too minor to affect the outcome of the election.<ref name="crisis_in_myanmar_2021_01_31_reuters"/> However, despite the election commission validating the NLD's overwhelming victory,<ref name="myanmar_election_body_2021_01_28_irrawaddy_com" /> the USDP and Myanmar's military persistently alleged fraud<ref name="military_condemns_2021_01_15_irrawaddy_com">[https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-military-condemns-speakers-refusal-probe-election-fraud-claims.html "Myanmar Military Condemns Speaker's Refusal to Probe Election Fraud Claims,"] January 15, 2021, ''[[The Irrawaddy]],'' retrieved February 7, 2021</ref><ref name="military_demands_2021_01_21_irrawaddy_com">[https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-military-condemns-speakers-refusal-probe-election-fraud-claims.html "Myanmar Military Demands Proof November Election Was Fair,"] January 21, 2021, ''[[The Irrawaddy]],'' retrieved February 7, 2021</ref> and the military threatened to "take action".<ref name="crisis_in_myanmar_2021_01_31_reuters" /><ref name="Myanmar_military_2021_01_26_irrawaddy_com">[https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-military-refuses-rule-coup-presses-claim-fraud-nov-election.html "Myanmar Military Refuses to Rule Out Coup as It Presses Claim of Fraud in Nov Election,"] January 26, 2021, ''[[The Irrawaddy]],'' retrieved February 7, 2021</ref><ref name="military_threats channelnewsasia_com">[https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/military-threats--coup-fears-overshadow-myanmar-parliament-opening-14068508 "Military Thrests: Coup Fears Overshadow Myanmar Parliament Opening,"] ''[[Channel NewsAsia]],''</ref><ref name="military_chief_warns_2021_01_28_irrawaddy_com">[https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-military-chief-warns-constitution-revoked-laws-not-followed.html "Myanmar Military Chief Warns Constitution Should Be Revoked If Laws Not Followed,"] January 28, 2021, ''[[The Irrawaddy]],'' retrieved February 7, 2021</ref><ref name="coup_talk_2021_01_28_bangkokpost_com">[https://www.bangkokpost.com/world/2059323/un-embassies-fret-over-myanmar-coup-talk "UN, embassies fret over Myanmar coup talk,"] January 28, 2021, ''[[Bangkok Post]],'' retrieved January 30, 2021</ref>

In January, 2021, just before the new parliament was to be sworn in, The NLD announced that Suu Kyi would retain her State Counsellor role in the upcoming government.

<ref name="suu_kyi_to_keep_2021_01_25_irrawaddy_com">[https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmars-daw-aung-san-suu-kyi-keep-state-counselor-position-nld-says.html "Myanmar's Daw Aung San Suu Kyi to Keep State Counselor Position NLD Says,"] January 25, 2021, ''[[The Irrawaddy]],'' retrieved February 6, 2021</ref>

====Coup====

In the early morning of 1 February 2021, the day parliament was set to convene, the [[Tatmadaw]], Myanmar's military, detained State Counsellor [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] and other members of the ruling party.<ref name="crisis_in_myanmar_2021_01_31_reuters" />

<ref name="myanmar_coup_2021-02-01_bbc">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-55882489 "Myanmar coup: Aung San Suu Kyi detained as military seizes control,"] February 1, 2021, BBC News, retrieved February 1, 2021</ref><ref name="myanmar_coup_2021_02_21_nikkei_com">[https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Myanmar-Coup/Myanmar-coup-Week-of-Feb.1-to-Feb.-21-EU-action-in-focus-as-foreign-ministers-set-to-meet "Myanmar coup: Week(s) of Feb.1 to Feb. 21, EU action in focus as foreign ministers set to meet; Candlelight vigil held in Yangon; Facebook removes military's 'True News' page,"] (reverse chronology) February 1 through February 21, 2021, ''[[Nikkei Asia]],'' retrieved March 1, 2021</ref> The military handed power to military chief [[Min Aung Hlaing]] and declared a state of emergency for one year<ref name="suu_kyi_detained_2021_01_31_bloomberg_com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-01-31/myanmar-s-suu-kyi-detained-in-early-morning-raid-reuters-says|title=Myanmar Military Takes Power for One Year, Suu Kyi in Detention|date=31 January 2021|via=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref><ref name="myanmar_coup_2021-02-01_bbc" /> and began closing the borders, restricting travel and electronic communications nationwide.<ref name="myanmar_coup_2021_02_21_nikkei_com" />

The military announced it would replace the current election commission with a new one, and a military media outlet indicated new elections would be held in about one year – though the military avoided making an official commitment to that.<ref name="myanmar_coup_2021_02_21_nikkei_com" />

State Counselor Aung San Suu Kyi and President Win Myint were placed under house arrest, and the military began filing various charges against them. The military expelled NLD party Members of Parliament from the capital city, Naypyitaw.<ref name="myanmar_coup_2021_02_21_nikkei_com" /> By March 15, 2021 the military leadership continued to extend martial law into more parts of Yangon, while security forces killed 38 people in a single day of violence.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Helen Regan|title=Chinese factories set on fire in Myanmar in deadliest day since coup|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/15/asia/myanmar-deaths-chinese-factories-intl-hnk/index.html|access-date=2021-03-15|website=CNN}}</ref>

====Reaction====

By the second day of the coup, thousands of protesters were marching in the streets of the nation's largest city, and commercial capital, [[Yangon]], and other protests erupted nationwide, largely halting commerce and transportation. Despite the military's arrests and killings of protesters, the first weeks of the coup found growing public participation, including groups of civil servants, teachers, students, workers, monks and religious leaders – even normally disaffected ethnic minorities.<ref name="teachers_join_2021_02_05_bbc">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-55944482 "Myanmar coup: Teachers join growing protests against military,"] February 5, 2021, BBC News, retrieved February 28, 2021</ref><ref name="tens_of_thousands_2021_02_07_irrawaddy_com">[https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/tens-thousands-take-streets-myanmar-protest-military-regime.html "Tens of Thousands Take to Streets in Myanmar to Protest Military Regime,"] November 12, 2020, ''[[The Irrawaddy]],'' retrieved February 28, 2021</ref><ref name="myanmar_coup_2021_02_21_nikkei_com" />

The coup was immediately condemned by the [[United Nations Secretary General]], and leaders of democratic nations – including the United States President [[Joe Biden]], western European political leaders, Southeast Asian democracies, and others around the world, who demanded or urged release of the captive leaders, and an immediate return to democratic rule in Myanmar. The U.S. threatened sanctions on the military and its leaders, including a "freeze" of US$1 billion of their assets in the U.S.<ref name="teachers_join_2021_02_05_bbc" /><ref name="myanmar_coup_2021_02_21_nikkei_com" />

[[Russia]] and [[China]] – whose representatives had conferred with the Tatmadaw leader Gen. Hlaing just days before the coup<ref name="red_carpet_2021_01_25_irrawaddy_com">[https://www.irrawaddy.com/opinion/analysis/myanmar-military-rolls-red-carpet-russian-defense-minister.html "Myanmar Military Rolls Out Red Carpet for Russian Defense Minister,"] January 25, 2021, ''[[The Irrawaddy]]'' retrieved March 4, 2021</ref><ref name="vladimir_putin_2021_02_14_thetimes_co_uk">[https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/vladimir-putins-defence-minister-sergei-shoigu-courted-in-burma-days-before-coup-mhfx8jdgt "Vladimir Putin’s defence minister Sergei Shoigu courted in Burma days before coup,"] February 14, 2021, ''[[The Times]]''[of London], retrieved March 4, 2021</ref><ref name="china_will_give_2021_01_12_reuters">[https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-china-myanmar/china-will-give-myanmar-some-covid-19-vaccines-says-ministry-idINKBN29H0YM?edition-redirect=uk "China will give Myanmar some COVID-19 vaccines, says ministry,"] January 12, 2021, [[Reuters News Service]], "...top diplomat... Yi, met the commander-in-chief... Senior General Min Aung Hlaing..." retrieved March 4, 2021</ref> – refrained from criticizing it. Their apparent complicity angered civilian protesters in Myanmar.<ref name="unhrc_china_russia_2021_02_13_irrawaddy_com">[https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/unhrc-russia-china-still-dismiss-myanmars-military-coup-internal-affair.html "At UNHRC, Russia and China Still Dismiss Myanmar’s Military Coup as an Internal Affair.htm,"] February 13, 2021, ''[[The Irrawaddy]],'' "Myanmar protesters continued the demonstrations in front of both countries’ embassies...", retrieved March 4, 2021</ref><ref name="protesters_2021_02_17_au_news_yahoo_com">[https://au.news.yahoo.com/myanmar-protesters-surround-chinese-embassy-090000991.html "Myanmar protesters surround Chinese Embassy in Yangon amid anger at military coup,"] 17 February 2021, ''[[Yahoo News]]'' (Australia), retrieved March 4, 2021</ref> However, both of those nations refrained from blocking a [[United Nations Security Council]] resolution calling for the release of Aung San Suu Kyi and the other detained leaders.<ref name="teachers_join_2021_02_05_bbc" /><ref name="myanmar_coup_2021_02_21_nikkei_com" /> – a position shared by the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]].<ref name="myanmar_coup_2021_02_21_nikkei_com" />

International development and aid partners – business, non-governmental, and governmental – hinted at suspension of partnerships with Myanmar. Banks closed. [[Social media]] communications platforms, including [[Facebook]] and [[Twitter]], removed Tatmadaw postings. Protesters appeared at Myanmar embassies in foreign countries.<ref name="teachers_join_2021_02_05_bbc" /><ref name="myanmar_coup_2021_02_21_nikkei_com" />

== Geography ==

[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map MMR present.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Myanmar map of Köppen climate classification.]]

Myanmar has a total area of {{convert|678500|km2}}. It lies between latitudes [[9th parallel north|9°]] and [[29th parallel north|29°N]], and longitudes [[92nd meridian east|92°]] and [[102nd meridian east|102°E]]. Myanmar is bordered in the northwest by the [[Chittagong Division]] of [[Bangladesh]] and the [[Mizoram]], Manipur, [[Nagaland]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]] states of India. Its north and northeast border is with the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] and [[Yunnan]] for a Sino-Myanmar border total of {{convert|2185|km|abbr=on}}. It is bounded by [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]] to the southeast. Myanmar has {{convert|1930|km|abbr=on}} of contiguous coastline along the [[Bay of Bengal]] and [[Andaman Sea]] to the southwest and the south, which forms one quarter of its total perimeter.{{r|World Factbook}}

In the north, the [[Hengduan Mountains]] form the border with China. [[Hkakabo Razi]], located in [[Kachin State]], at an elevation of {{convert|5881|m|ft|0}}, is the highest point in Myanmar.<ref>{{cite book| editor = Patrick Hesp | year=2000 | title=Geographica's World Reference | publisher=Random House Australia | pages =738, 741|display-editors=etal}}</ref> Many mountain ranges, such as the [[Rakhine Yoma]], the [[Bago Yoma]], the [[Shan Hills]] and the [[Tenasserim Hills]] exist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the [[Himalayas]].<ref name="myathan">{{cite book | first=Mya | last=Than | year=2005 | title=Myanmar in ASEAN: Regional Co-operation Experience | isbn=978-9812302106 | publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies | location=Singapore}}</ref> The mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are the [[Irrawaddy River|Irrawaddy]], [[Salween River|Salween (Thanlwin)]], and the [[Sittaung River|Sittaung]] rivers.<ref name="myatthein">{{cite book | first=Myat | last=Thein | year=2005 | title=Economic Development of Myanmar | isbn=978-9812302113 | publisher=Inst. of Southeast Asian Studies | location=Singapore}}</ref> The Irrawaddy River, Myanmar's longest river at nearly {{convert|2170|km|mi|0}}, flows into the [[Gulf of Martaban]]. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the [[mountain chain]]s.<ref name="myathan" /> The majority of Myanmar's population lives in the [[Irrawaddy River|Irrawaddy]] valley, which is situated between the [[Arakan Mountains|Rakhine Yoma]] and the [[Shan Hills|Shan Plateau]].

=== Administrative divisions ===

Myanmar is divided into seven states ({{my|ပြည်နယ်}}) and seven regions ({{my|တိုင်းဒေသကြီး}}), formerly called divisions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myanmars.net/myanmar/index.htm |title=Myanmar. States & Regions |publisher=Myanmar's NET |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104160039/http://www.myanmars.net/myanmar/index.htm |archive-date=4 November 2013 }}</ref> Regions are predominantly Bamar (that is, mainly inhabited by Myanmar's dominant ethnic group). States, in essence, are regions that are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into [[Districts of Myanmar|districts]], which are further subdivided into townships, [[Ward (country subdivision)|wards]], and villages.

Below are the number of districts, townships, cities/towns, wards, village groups and villages in each division and state of Myanmar as of 31 December 2001:<ref>''List of Districts, Townships, Cities/Towns, Wards, Village Groups and Villages in Union of Myanmar'' published by Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Union of Myanmar on 31 December 2001</ref>

{| class="wikitable"

|-

! No.

! [[Country subdivision|State/Region]]

! Districts

! Town ships

! Cities/ Towns

! [[Ward (country subdivision)|Wards]]

! Village groups

! Villages

|-

| 1

| [[Kachin State]]

| 4

| 18

| 20

| 116

| 606

| 2630

|-

| 2

| [[Kayah State]]

| 2

| 7

| 29

| 79

| 624

|-

| 3

| [[Kayin State]]

| 3

| 7

| 10

| 46

| 376

| 2092

|-

| 4

| [[Chin State]]

| 2

| 9

| 29

| 475

| 1355

|-

| 5

| [[Sagaing Region]]

| 8

| 37

| 171

| 1769

| 6095

|-

| 6

| [[Tanintharyi Region]]

| 3

| 10

| 63

| 265

| 1255

|-

| 7

| [[Bago Region]]

| 4

| 28

| 33

| 246

| 1424

| 6498

|-

| 8

| [[Magway Region]]

| 5

| 25

| 26

| 160

| 1543

| 4774

|-

| 9

| [[Mandalay Region]]

| 7

| 31

| 29

| 259

| 1611

| 5472

|-

| 10

| [[Mon State]]

| 2

| 10

| 11

| 69

| 381

| 1199

|-

| 11

| [[Rakhine State]]

| 4

| 17

| 120

| 1041

| 3871

|-

| 12

| [[Yangon Region]]

| 4

| 45

| 20

| 685

| 634

| 2119

|-

| 13

| [[Shan State]]

| 11

| 54

| 336

| 1626

| 15513

|-

| 14

| [[Ayeyarwady Region]]

|6

| 26

| 29

| 219

| 1912

| 11651

|-

|

| '''Total'''

| '''63'''

| '''324'''

| '''312'''

| '''2548'''

| '''13742'''

| '''65148'''

|}

=== Climate ===

Much of the country lies between the [[Tropic of Cancer]] and the [[Equator]]. It lies in the [[monsoon]] region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over {{convert|5000|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} of rain annually. Annual [[Precipitation (meteorology)|rainfall]] in the [[river delta|delta]] region is approximately {{convert|2500|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}, while average annual rainfall in the dry zone in central Myanmar is less than {{convert|1000|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}. The northern regions of Myanmar are the coolest, with average temperatures of {{convert|21|C|F}}. Coastal and delta regions have an average maximum temperature of {{convert|32|C|F|1}}.<ref name="myatthein" />

=== Biodiversity ===

[[File:Kaw Gon towards Shwe Kyar Pwint.jpg|thumb|The limestone landscape of [[Kayin State]]]]

{{see|Deforestation in Myanmar|List of protected areas of Myanmar}}

Myanmar is a [[Biodiversity|biodiverse]] country with more than 16,000 [[plants|plant]], 314 [[mammal]], 1131 [[bird]], 293 [[reptile]], and 139 [[amphibian]] species, and 64 terrestrial [[ecosystems]] including tropical and subtropical vegetation, seasonally inundated wetlands, shoreline and tidal systems, and alpine ecosystems. Myanmar houses some of the largest intact natural ecosystems in [[Southeast Asia]], but the remaining ecosystems are under threat from land use intensification and over-exploitation. According to the [[IUCN Red List of Ecosystems]] categories and criteria more than a third of Myanmar's land area has been converted to [[Anthropogenic biome|anthropogenic ecosystems]] over the last 2–3 centuries, and nearly half of its ecosystems are threatened. Despite large gaps in information for some ecosystems, there is a large potential to develop a comprehensive [[PAN Parks|protected area network]] that protects its terrestrial biodiversity.<ref>{{cite journal| last1 = Murray | first1 = Nicholas J.| last2 = Keith | first2 = David A.| last3 = Duncan | first3 = Adam| last4 = Tizard | first4 = Robert| last5 = Ferrer-Paris | first5 = Jose R.| last6 = Worthington | first6 = Thomas A.| last7 = Armstrong | first7 = Kate| last8 = Nyan Hlaing | last9 = Win Thuya Htut | last10 = Aung Htat Oo | last11 = Kyaw Zay Ya | last12 = Grantham | first12 = Hedley | date = 2020 | title = Myanmar's terrestrial ecosystems: Status, threats and conservation opportunities

| url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108834 | journal = Biological Conservation | volume = 252 | pages = 108834 | doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108834 | access-date = 11 December 2020 }}</ref>

Myanmar continues to perform badly in the global [[Environmental Performance Index]] (EPI) with an overall ranking of 153 out of 180 countries in 2016; among the worst in the [[South Asia]]n region, only ahead of [[Bangladesh]] and [[Afghanistan]]. The EPI was established in 2001 by the [[World Economic Forum]] as a global gauge to measure how well individual countries perform in implementing the United Nations' [[Sustainable Development Goals]]. The environmental areas where Myanmar performs worst (ie. highest ranking) are [[Air pollution|air quality]] (174), health impacts of [[environmental issues]] (143) and [[biodiversity]] and [[habitat]] (142). Myanmar performs best (ie. lowest ranking) in [[Environmental impact of fishing|environmental impacts of fisheries]] (21) but with declining [[Fish stocks|fish stock]]s. Despite several issues, Myanmar also ranks 64 and scores very good (ie. a high percentage of 93.73%) in environmental effects of the agricultural industry because of an excellent management of the [[nitrogen cycle]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://epi.yale.edu/reports/2016-report|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204021925/http://epi.yale.edu/reports/2016-report|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 February 2016|title=2016 Report|journal=EPI Report|access-date=17 December 2016}}</ref><ref>EPI (2016): [http://epi.yale.edu/country/myanmar Myanmar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424221820/http://epi.yale.edu/country/myanmar |date=24 April 2017 }}</ref> Myanmar is one of the most highly vulnerable countries to [[climate change]]; this poses a number of social, political, economic and foreign policy challenges to the country.<ref>Overland, I. et al. (2017). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320622312 Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier]. Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) and Myanmar Institute of International and Strategic Studies (MISIS).</ref> The country had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 7.18/10, ranking it 49th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057}}</ref>

Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems. [[Forest]]s, including dense tropical growth and valuable [[teak]] in lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of the country, including areas of [[acacia]], [[bamboo]], [[Hopea odorata|ironwood]] and ''[[Magnolia champaca]]''. [[Coconut]] and [[Areca catechu|betel palm]] and rubber have been introduced. In the [[highlands]] of the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.burmalibrary.org/reg.burma/archives/199909/msg00690.html |title=Myanmar's Forest Law and Rules n|publisher=BurmaLibrary.org |access-date=15 July 2006}}</ref>

Heavy logging since the new 1995 forestry law went into effect has seriously reduced forest acreage and wildlife habitat.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Reid |first1=Robert |last2=Bindloss |first2=Joseph |last3=Butler |first3=Stuart |year=2009 |chapter=Environment: National Parks |title=Myanmar (Burma) |edition=10th |publisher=Lonely Planet |location=Footscray, Victoria, Australia |page=[https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetmyan00joeb/page/85 85] |isbn=978-1-74104-718-9 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetmyan00joeb |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetmyan00joeb/page/85 }}</ref> The lands along the coast support all varieties of tropical fruits and once had large areas of [[Myanmar Coast mangroves|mangroves]] although much of the protective mangroves have disappeared. In much of central Myanmar (the dry zone), [[vegetation]] is sparse and stunted.

Typical jungle animals, particularly [[tiger]]s, occur sparsely in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there are [[rhinoceros]], [[wild water buffalo]], [[clouded leopard]], [[wild boar]]s, [[deer]], [[antelope]], and [[elephant]]s, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the [[Wood industry|lumber industry]]. Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from [[gibbon]]s and [[monkey]]s to [[Pteropus|flying foxes]]. The abundance of [[bird]]s is notable with over 800 species, including [[Rose-ringed parakeet|parrots]], [[myna]], [[peafowl]], [[red junglefowl]], [[Ploceidae|weaverbirds]], [[crow]]s, [[heron]]s, and [[barn owl]]. Among reptile species there are [[crocodile]]s, [[gecko]]s, [[cobra]]s, [[Burmese python]]s, and [[turtle]]s. Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myanmars.net/myanmar-culture/myanmar-flora-fauna.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20060923162044/http://www.myanmars.net/myanmar-culture/myanmar-flora-fauna.htm |archive-date=23 September 2006 |title="Flora and Fauna" at |publisher=Myanmars.net |access-date=17 April 2010}}</ref>

Climate change{{anchor|Combating_climate_change}}

Previously and currently analysed data, as well as future projections on changes caused by climate change predict serious consequences to development for all economic, productive, social, and environmental sectors in Myanmar.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Impact of Climate Change and the Case of Myanmar {{!}} Myanmar Climate Change Alliance|url=https://myanmarccalliance.org/en/climate-change-basics/impact-of-climate-change-and-the-case-of-myanmar/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205141140/https://myanmarccalliance.org/en/climate-change-basics/impact-of-climate-change-and-the-case-of-myanmar/|archive-date=5 December 2018|access-date=2 December 2018|website=myanmarccalliance.org|language=en-GB}}</ref> In order to combat the hardships ahead and do its part to help [[climate change mitigation|combat climate change]] Myanmar has displayed interest in expanding its use of renewable energy and lowering its level of carbon emissions. Groups involved in helping Myanmar with the transition and move forward include the [[United Nations Environment Programme|UN Environment Programme]], Myanmar Climate Change Alliance, and the [[Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation (Myanmar)|Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation]] which directed in producing the final draft of the Myanmar national climate change policy that was presented to various sectors of the Myanmar government for review.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|title=National climate change policy finalised|language=en|work=The Myanmar Times|url=https://www.mmtimes.com/national-news/yangon/25824-national-climate-change-policy-finalised.html|access-date=18 October 2018}}</ref>

In April 2015, it was announced that the [[World Bank]] and Myanmar would enter a full partnership framework aimed to better access to electricity and other basic services for about six million people and expected to benefit three million pregnant woman and children through improved health services.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|title=Millions to Benefit from Myanmar's New Partnership Framework With the World Bank Group|language=en|publisher=World Bank|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/04/23/millions-benefit-myanmar-new-partnership-framework-world-bank-group|access-date=2 December 2018}}</ref> Acquired funding and proper planning has allowed Myanmar to better prepare for the impacts of climate change by enacting programs which teach its people new farming methods, rebuild its infrastructure with materials resilient to natural disasters, and transition various sectors towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions.<ref name=":5">{{cite web|title=Myanmar Climate Change Policy|url=http://myanmarccalliance.org/mcca/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/National-Myanmar-Climate-Change-Policy-DRAFT-1_for-website.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322094917/http://myanmarccalliance.org/mcca/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/National-Myanmar-Climate-Change-Policy-DRAFT-1_for-website.pdf|archive-date=22 March 2020|website=myanmarccalliance.org}}</ref>

== Government and politics ==

{{multiple image

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| footer = Head of Government, Deputy Head of Government, and Head of State

* [[Min Aung Hlaing]], [[Chairman of the State Administration Council]]

* [[Soe Win (general)|Soe Win]], [[Vice Chairman of the State Administration Council]]

* [[Myint Swe (general)|Myint Swe]], [[President of Myanmar]]

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Myanmar operates ''de jure'' as a [[unitary state|unitary]] [[List of countries by system of government#Assembly-independent republican systems|assembly-independent]] [[republic]] under its [[2008 Constitution of Myanmar|2008 constitution]]. But in February 2021, the civilian government led by [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], was deposed by the [[Tatmadaw]]. In February 2021, [[Tatmadaw|Myanmar military]] declared a one-year state emergency and First Vice President [[Myint Swe (general)|Myint Swe]] became the [[President of Myanmar|Acting President of Myanmar]] and handed the power to the [[Commander-in-Chief of Defence Services]] [[Min Aung Hlaing]] and he assumed the role [[Chairman of the State Administration Council]]. The [[President of Myanmar]] acts as the [[head of state]] and the [[Chairman of the State Administration Council]] acts as the [[de facto]] [[head of government]].<ref>{{cite web | last=Phillips | first=Kimberley | title=The last thing the Myanmar people need is false hope | website=The Canberra Times | date=February 20, 2021 | url=https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/7133580/the-last-thing-the-myanmar-people-need-is-false-hope/ | access-date=February 23, 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Myanmar-Lower-House-Parliament.jpg|right|thumb|[[Assembly of the Union]] (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw)]]

The constitution of Myanmar, its third since independence, was drafted by its military rulers and published in September 2008. The country is governed as a [[parliamentary system]] with a [[Bicameralism|bicameral legislature]] (with an executive [[President of Myanmar|president]] accountable to the legislature), with 25% of the legislators appointed by the military and the rest elected in general elections.

The legislature, called the [[Assembly of the Union]], is bicameral and made up of two houses: the 224-seat upper [[House of Nationalities]] and the 440-seat lower [[House of Representatives (Myanmar)|House of Representatives]]. The upper house consists 168 members who are directly elected and 56 who are appointed by the [[Tatmadaw|Burmese Armed Forces]]. The lower house consists of 330 members who are directly elected and 110 who are appointed by the armed forces.

=== Political culture ===

The major political parties are the [[National League for Democracy]] and the [[Union Solidarity and Development Party]].

Myanmar's army-drafted constitution was approved in a [[2008 Burmese constitutional referendum|referendum]] in May 2008. The results, 92.4% of the 22 million voters with an official turnout of 99%, are considered suspect by many international observers and by the National League of Democracy with reports of widespread [[Electoral fraud|fraud]], ballot stuffing, and voter intimidation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/topNews/idINIndia-33587120080515 |title=Reuters, Cyclone-hit Myanmar says 92 percent back charter |work=Reuters |date=15 May 2008 |access-date=17 April 2010}}</ref>

The [[2010 Myanmar general election|elections of 2010]] resulted in a victory for the military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party. Various foreign observers questioned the fairness of the elections.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/22/world/asia/22nations.html|date=22 October 2010|work=The New York Times | first=Neil|last=MacFarquhar|title=U.N. Doubts Fairness of Election in Myanmar}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Jha, Lalit K |url=http://www2.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=15692 |title=2010 Burmese Election may be Illegitimate: Clinton |work=The Irrawaddy |date=21 May 2009 |access-date=15 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-11707294 |title=Western states dismiss Burma's election |publisher=BBC |date= 8 November 2010|access-date=11 November 2010}}</ref> One criticism of the election was that only government-sanctioned political parties were allowed to contest in it and the popular [[National League for Democracy]] was declared illegal.<ref name=guardianASSK>{{cite news|last=Tisdall|first=Simon|title=Aung San Suu Kyi has to tread softly – but governments must tell it like it is|date=4 July 2011|work=The Guardian |location=UK|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/jul/04/aung-san-suu-kyi-burmese}}</ref> However, immediately following the elections, the government ended the house arrest of the democracy advocate and leader of the National League for Democracy, [[Aung San Suu Kyi]],<ref>{{cite news|author=Walker, Peter |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/12/aung-san-suu-kyi-burma-release |title=Guardian report on Aung's release from house arrest |work=The Guardian |access-date=1 September 2012 |location=London |date=12 November 2010}}</ref> and her ability to move freely around the country is considered an important test of the military's movement toward more openness.<ref name=guardianASSK /> After unexpected [[2011–2015 Myanmar political reforms|reforms in 2011]], [[National League for Democracy|NLD]] senior leaders have decided to register as a political party and to field candidates in future by-elections.<ref>{{cite news |title=Suu Kyi's NLD democracy party to rejoin Burma politics |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-15787605 |publisher=BBC News |date=18 November 2011 |access-date=18 November 2011}}</ref>

Myanmar's political history is underlined by its struggle to establish democratic structures amidst conflicting factions. This political transition from a closely held military rule to a free democratic system is widely believed to be determining the future of Myanmar. The resounding victory of [[Aung San Suu Kyi]]'s National League for Democracy in the 2015 general election raised hope for a successful culmination of this transition.<ref>{{cite web |title=Myanmar under Transition |url=http://asianleadershipcentre.org/asian-review/myanmar-under-transition |publisher=Asian Review |access-date=9 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Fisher |first=Jonah |title=Hundred days of Myanmar's democracy |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-36732270 |publisher=BBC News |date=8 July 2016 |access-date=9 February 2017}}</ref>

Myanmar rates as a corrupt nation on the [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] with a rank of 130th out of 180 countries worldwide, with 1st being least corrupt, {{As of|2019||lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2019|url=https://www.transparency.org/en/countries/myanmar|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623134205/https://www.transparency.org/en/countries/myanmar|archive-date=23 June 2020|access-date=14 August 2020|publisher=Transparency.org}}</ref>

=== Foreign relations ===

[[File:Barack Obama meets with Thein Sein at Burma Parliament Building.jpg|thumb|Myanmar President Thein Sein meets US President [[Barack Obama]] in [[Yangon]], 2012]]

Though the country's foreign relations, particularly with [[Western world|Western nations]], have historically been strained, the situation has markedly improved since the reforms following the 2010 elections. After years of diplomatic isolation and economic and military sanctions,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.congress.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d108:SN01182:@@@L&summ2=m& |title=Burma Freedom and Democracy Act of 2003 |publisher=United States Library of Congress |access-date=4 February 2007 |date=4 June 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040125044621/http://www.congress.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d108%3ASN01182%3A%40%40%40L&summ2=m& |archive-date=25 January 2004 }}</ref> the United States relaxed curbs on foreign aid to Myanmar in November 2011<ref name="Clinton" /> and announced the resumption of diplomatic relations on 13 January 2012<ref>{{cite news | author1=Myers, Steven Lee |author2=Mydans, Seth | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/14/world/asia/united-states-resumes-diplomatic-relations-with-myanmar.html | work=The New York Times | title=U.S. to Renew Myanmar Ties in Light of Reforms | date=13 January 2012 |access-date=15 May 2013}}</ref> The [[European Union]] has placed sanctions on Myanmar, including an [[arms embargo]], cessation of [[trade preference]]s, and suspension of all aid with the exception of [[humanitarian aid]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/comm/external_relations/myanmar/intro/index.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060725000750/http://ec.europa.eu/comm/external_relations/myanmar/intro/index.htm|archive-date=25 July 2006 |title= The EU's relations with Burma / Myanmar |access-date=13 July 2006 |publisher=European Union}}</ref>

[[File:U Thant (1963).jpg|thumb|upright|The former [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]], [[U Thant]] (1961–1971)]]

Sanctions imposed by the United States and European countries against the former military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by supporters of the democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from the country of most U.S. and many European companies.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/8195956.stm |title=Overview of Burma sanctions |publisher=BBC News |access-date=12 November 2011 |date=18 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812181932/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/8195956.stm |archive-date=12 August 2011}}</ref> On 13 April 2012, [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[David Cameron]] called for the economic sanctions on Myanmar to be suspended in the wake of the pro-democracy party gaining 43 seats out of a possible 45 in the 2012 by-elections with the party leader, [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] becoming a member of the Burmese parliament.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-17698526 |publisher=BBC News| title=David Cameron calls for Myanmar sanctions to be suspended | date=13 April 2012}}</ref>

Despite Western isolation, Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in the country and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. The country has close relations with neighbouring India and China with several Indian and Chinese companies operating in the country. Under India's [[Look East policy (India)|Look East policy]], fields of co-operation between India and Myanmar include [[remote sensing]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=BBAB&d_place=BBAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=11045BA04AFDFED0&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM |title=Burma, India to sign accord on use of India's remote sensing satellite data |publisher=NewsLibrary.com |date=9 March 2006 |access-date=17 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501183947/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=BBAB&d_place=BBAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=11045BA04AFDFED0&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> oil and gas exploration,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0426/p04s01-wosc.html |title=India looks to Burma to slake growing thirst for gas |work=The Christian Science Monitor |date=26 April 2006 |access-date=17 April 2010}}</ref> information technology,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-08/04/content_8953269.htm |title=Myanmar, India to build IT centres in Myanmar_English_Xinhua |agency=Xinhua News Agency |date=4 August 2008 |access-date=17 April 2010}}</ref> hydropower<ref>{{cite web |url=http://steelguru.com/news/index/2008/08/01/NTY5MDg%3D/India_to_develop_two_hydel_power_projects_in_Myanmar.html |title=India to develop two hydel power projects in Myanmar – 56908 |publisher=Steelguru.com |date=1 August 2008 |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116032246/http://steelguru.com/news/index/2008/08/01/NTY5MDg%3D/India_to_develop_two_hydel_power_projects_in_Myanmar.html |archive-date=16 January 2009}}</ref> and construction of ports and buildings.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/mobile/bbc_news/world/asia_pacific/716/71684/story7168492.shtml |title=India urges Burma reconciliation |publisher=BBC News |date=2 January 2008 |access-date=17 April 2010}}</ref>

In 2008, India suspended military aid to Myanmar over the issue of human rights abuses by the ruling junta, although it has preserved extensive commercial ties, which provide the regime with much-needed revenue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2008/01/14/india17739_txt.htm |title=India and Burma: time to choose (Human Rights Watch, 14-1-2008) |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=17 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091207232552/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2008/01/14/india17739_txt.htm |archive-date=7 December 2009 }}</ref> The thaw in relations began on 28 November 2011, when Belarusian Prime Minister [[Mikhail Myasnikovich]] and his wife Ludmila arrived in the capital, Naypyidaw, the same day as the country received a visit by U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, who also met with pro-democracy opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi.<ref>{{cite news

|title= The Barefoot Diplomat: Hillary Clinton Begins Landmark Visit to Burma |url = http://world.time.com/2011/12/01/the-barefoot-diplomat-hillary-clinton-begins-landmark-visit-to-burma/

|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]

|date= 1 December 2011

|access-date = 19 November 2012

|quote= U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and pro-democracy opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi talk prior to dinner in Rangoon, Myanmar, 1 Dec. 2011.

}}</ref> International relations progress indicators continued in September 2012 when Aung San Suu Kyi visited the United States<ref>{{cite news |title= Myanmar's Suu Kyi begins landmark US visit

|url= http://asiancorrespondent.com/89446/burmas-suu-kyi-begins-landmark-us-visit/

|format = News & blogging

|agency= [[Associated Press]]

|newspaper = [[Asian Correspondent]]

|publisher= Hybrid News Limited |location= Bristol, England |date= 17 September 2012

|access-date = 19 November 2012|quote= WASHINGTON (AP) – Burma democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi will be honored in Washington this week and presented Congress's highest award, the latest milestone in her remarkable journey from political prisoner to globe-trotting stateswoman.}}</ref> followed by Myanmar's reformist president visit to the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{cite news

|title= Burma's president to make historic US visit

|url= http://asiancorrespondent.com/89856/burmas-president-to-make-historic-us-visit/

|format = News & blogging

|agency= [[Associated Press]]

|newspaper = [[Asian Correspondent]]

|publisher= Hybrid News Limited |location= Bristol, England |date= 24 September 2012

|access-date = 19 November 2012|quote= YANGON, Myanmar (AP) – Myanmar's reformist president is heading to the United States to tout his country's makeover and push for an end to sanctions, in the first U.S. visit by a leader of the former international pariah since 1966.}}</ref>

In May 2013, Thein Sein became the first Myanmar president to visit the [[White House]] in 47 years; the last Burmese leader to visit the White House was [[Ne Win]] in September 1966. President [[Barack Obama]] praised the former general for political and economic reforms and the cessation of tensions between Myanmar and the United States. Political activists objected to the visit because of concerns over human rights abuses in Myanmar, but Obama assured Thein Sein that Myanmar will receive U.S. support. The two leaders discussed the release of more political prisoners, the institutionalisation of political reform and the rule of law, and ending ethnic conflict in Myanmar—the two governments agreed to sign a [[bilateral trade]] and investment framework agreement on 21 May 2013.<ref>{{cite news|title=Obama Vows US Support As Myanmar Leader Visits|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=185449969|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521150924/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=185449969|archive-date=21 May 2013|publisher=NPR|date=20 May 2013|agency=Associated Press}}</ref>

In June 2013, Myanmar held its first ever summit, the [[World Economic Forum]] on East Asia 2013. A regional spinoff of the annual [[World Economic Forum]] in [[Davos]], Switzerland, the summit was held on 5–7 June and attended by 1,200 participants, including 10 heads of state, 12 ministers and 40 senior directors from around the world.<ref>{{cite web|title={{As written|Pheonix}} Voyages appointed travel manager for Myanmar's first major summit|url=http://www.ttgmice.com/article/pheonix-voyages-appointed-travel-manager-for-myanmars-first-major-summit/|publisher=TTGmice|access-date=29 April 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110163809/http://www.ttgmice.com/article/pheonix-voyages-appointed-travel-manager-for-myanmars-first-major-summit/|archive-date=10 November 2013}}</ref> In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Myanmar, have signed a joint letter to the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] defending China's treatment of [[Uyghurs]] and other Muslim minority groups in the [[Xinjiang]] region.<ref>{{cite news |title=Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/which-countries-are-for-or-against-chinas-xinjiang-policies/ |work=[[The Diplomat]] |date=15 July 2019}}</ref>

=== Military ===

[[File:Myanmar Air Force MiG-29 MRD.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Myanmar Air Force]] [[Mikoyan MiG-29]] multirole fighter]]

Myanmar has received extensive military aid from China in the past.<ref>{{cite news |author=Cody, Edward |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/27/AR2007092702382_pf.html |title=Caution by Junta's Asian Neighbors Reflects Their Self-Interest |work=The Washington Post |date=27 September 2007 |access-date=17 April 2010}}</ref>

Myanmar has been a member of ASEAN since 1997. Though it gave up its turn to hold the ASEAN chair and host the [[ASEAN Summit]] in 2006, it chaired the forum and hosted the summit in 2014.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.asean.org/?static_post=24th-asean-summit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416074423/http://www.asean.org/?static_post=24th-asean-summit |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 April 2016 |work=ASEAN | title=24th ASEAN Summit, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar, 10–11 May 2014 | date=4 April 2014}}</ref> In November 2008, Myanmar's political situation with neighbouring Bangladesh became tense as they began searching for natural gas in a disputed block of the Bay of Bengal.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.asean.org/?static_post=24th-asean-summit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416074423/http://www.asean.org/?static_post=24th-asean-summit |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 April 2016 |title=24th ASEAN Summit, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar, 10–11 May 2014 |work=ASEAN |date= 4 April 2014|access-date=1 April 2016 }}</ref> Controversy surrounding the Rohingya population also remains an issue between Bangladesh and Myanmar.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1966621,00.html | work=Time | title=For Rohingya in Bangladesh, No Place is Home | date=19 February 2010}}</ref>

Myanmar's armed forces are known as the [[Tatmadaw]], which numbers 488,000. The Tatmadaw comprises the [[Myanmar Army|Army]], the [[Myanmar Navy|Navy]], and the [[Myanmar Air Force|Air Force]]. The country [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|ranked twelfth]] in the world for its number of active troops in service.<ref name="NCGUB" /> The military is very influential in Myanmar, with all top cabinet and ministry posts usually held by military officials. Official figures for military spending are not available. Estimates vary widely because of uncertain exchange rates, but Myanmar's military forces' expenses are high.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/0607-03.htm |title=World Military Spending Topped US$1 trillion in 2004 |access-date=19 July 2006 |last=Starck |first=Peter |date=7 June 2005 |agency=Reuters |publisher=Common Dreams NewsCenter |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060620161837/http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/0607-03.htm |archive-date=20 June 2006 }}</ref> Myanmar imports most of its weapons from Russia, Ukraine, China and India.

Myanmar is building a research [[nuclear reactor]] near [[Pyin Oo Lwin]] with help from Russia. It is one of the signatories of the nuclear [[Nuclear proliferation|non-proliferation]] pact since 1992 and a member of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) since 1957. The military junta had informed the IAEA in September 2000 of its intention to construct the reactor.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=BBC |title=Russia and Burma in Nuclear Deal |date=15 May 2007 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6658713.stm |access-date=28 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819190144/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6658713.stm |archive-date=19 August 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|work=The Telegraph|title=Nuclear Watchdog asks Burma to Open Up Suspect Sites|date=14 January 2011|last=Moore|first=Malcolm|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/burmamyanmar/8259803/Nuclear-watchdog-asks-Burma-to-open-up-suspect-sites.html|access-date=28 September 2011|location=London}}</ref> In 2010 as part of the Wikileaks leaked cables, Myanmar was suspected of using North Korean construction teams to build a fortified surface-to-air missile facility.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wikileaks.ch/cable/2004/08/04RANGOON1100.html |title=Alleged North Korean Involvement in Missile Assembly and Underground Facility Construction in Burma |date=27 August 2004 |publisher=Wikileaks.ch |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213234857/http://wikileaks.ch/cable/2004/08/04RANGOON1100.html |archive-date=13 December 2010 }}</ref> As of 2019, the United States [[Bureau of Arms Control, Verification, and Compliance|Bureau of Arms Control]] assessed that Myanmar is not in violation of its obligations under the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons|Non-Proliferation Treaty]] but that the Myanmar government had a history of non-transparency on its nuclear programs and aims.<ref name="ACVC">{{cite web|last1=Bureau of Arms Control, Verification and Compliance|title=Adherence to and Compliance with Arms Control, Non-Proliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments|url=https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Compliance-Report-2019-August-19-Unclassified-Final.pdf|access-date=2 January 2020|website=2019 Compliance Report|publisher=United States Department of State}}</ref>

Until 2005, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] annually adopted a detailed resolution about the situation in Myanmar by consensus.<ref name="UN-5483030">{{UN document |docid=A-54-PV.83 |body=General Assembly |type=Verbotim Report |session=54 |meeting=83 |page=30 |anchor=pg030-bk03 |date=17 December 1999 |meetingtime=10:00 |speakername=The President |access-date=25 September 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{UN document |docid=A-55-PV.81 |body=General Assembly |type=Verbotim Report |session=55 |meeting=81 |page=22 |anchor=pg022-bk01 |date=4 December 2000 |meetingtime=15:00 |speakername=The President |access-date=25 September 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{UN document |docid=A-56-PV.92 |body=General Assembly |type=Verbotim Report |session=56 |meeting=92 |page=7 |anchor=pg007-bk04 |date=24 December 2001 |meetingtime=11:00 |access-date=25 September 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{UN document |docid=A-60-PV.69 |body=General Assembly |type=Verbotim Report |session=60 |meeting=69 |page=19 |anchor=pg019-bk05 |date=23 December 2005 |meetingtime=10:00 |speakername=The President |access-date=25 September 2007 }}</ref> But in 2006 a divided United Nations General Assembly voted through a resolution that strongly called upon the government of Myanmar to end its systematic violations of human rights.<ref>{{UN document |docid=A-61-PV.84 |body=General Assembly |type=Verbotim Report |session=61 |meeting=84 |page=14 |anchor=pg014-bk07 |date=22 December 2006 |meetingtime=10:00 |access-date=25 September 2007 }}</ref> In January 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft resolution before the [[United Nations Security Council]]<ref>{{UN document |docid=S-2007-14 |type=Document |body=Security Council |year=2007 |document_number=14 |date=12 January 2007 |access-date=25 September 2007}}</ref> calling on the government of Myanmar to respect human rights and begin a democratic transition. South Africa also voted against the resolution.<ref>{{UN document |docid=S-PV-5619 |body=Security Council |type=Verbotim Report |meeting=5619 |page=3 |anchor=pg003-bk01 |date=12 January 2007 |meetingtime=16:00 |speakername=Mr. Kumalo |speakernation=South Africa |access-date=25 September 2007}}</ref>

=== Human rights and internal conflicts ===

[[File:Conflict areas in Myanmar.png|thumb|upright=0.8|Map of conflict zones in Myanmar. [[Administrative divisions of Myanmar|States]] and regions affected by fighting during and after 1995 are highlighted in yellow.]]

There is consensus that the former military regime in Myanmar (1962–2010) was one of the world's most repressive and abusive regimes.<ref>{{cite web |title=The World's Most Repressive Regimes 2013 |url=http://www.middle-east-info.org/gateway/mostrepressiveregimes.pdf |publisher=Freedom House |location=Geneva |year=2003 |pages=vii–7 |quote=Burma continues to be ruled by one of the world's most repressive regimes.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title = Are EU Trade Sanctions on Burma Compatible With WTO Law? | journal=Are EU Trade Sanctions on Burma Compatible with WTO Law? | first = Robert | last = Howse |author2=Jared M. Genser | pages = 166 ff| url = http://students.law.umich.edu/mjil/article-pdfs/v29n2-howse-genser.pdf| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100607153959/http://students.law.umich.edu/mjil/article-pdfs/v29n2-howse-genser.pdf| archive-date = 7 June 2010| access-date =7 November 2010 | quote = repressive and abusive military regime}}</ref> In November 2012, [[Samantha Power]], Barack Obama's Special Assistant to the President on Human Rights, wrote on the White House blog in advance of the president's visit that "Serious human rights abuses against civilians in several regions continue, including against women and children."<ref name=ShanVsGovt /> Members of the United Nations and major international human rights organisations have issued repeated and consistent reports of widespread and systematic human rights violations in Myanmar. The United Nations General Assembly has repeatedly<ref>{{cite web|title=List of UN General Assembly Resolutions on Burma|url=http://www.altsean.org/Research/UN%20Dossier/UNGA.htm|access-date=4 January 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104120635/http://www.altsean.org/Research/UN%20Dossier/UNGA.htm|archive-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> called on the Burmese military junta to respect human rights and in November 2009 the General Assembly adopted a resolution "strongly condemning the ongoing systematic violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms" and calling on the Burmese military regime "to take urgent measures to put an end to violations of international human rights and humanitarian law."<ref>{{Cite press release|title=UN General Assembly Resolution: Time for Concrete Action|publisher=International Federation for Human Rights|date=20 November 2009|url=http://www.fidh.org/UN-General-Assembly-Resolution-time-for-concrete|access-date=4 January 2010}}</ref>

International human rights organisations including [[Human Rights Watch]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/09/01/burma9290.htm|title=Statement to the EU Development Committee|date=1 September 2004|author=Adams, Brad|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|access-date=12 July 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060620074005/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/09/01/burma9290.htm|archive-date=20 June 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Amnesty International]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://report2009.amnesty.org/en/regions/asia-pacific/myanmar|title=Amnesty International 2009 Report on Human Rights in Myanmar|access-date=4 January 2010 |author=Adams, Brad|publisher=[[Amnesty International]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912013419/http://report2009.amnesty.org/en/regions/asia-pacific/myanmar|archive-date=12 September 2009}}</ref> and the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sciencemode.com/2007/09/28/satellite-images-verify-myanmar-forced-relocations-mounting-military-presence/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226124205/http://sciencemode.com/2007/09/28/satellite-images-verify-myanmar-forced-relocations-mounting-military-presence/|archive-date=26 February 2008|title=Satellite Images Verify Myanmar Forced Relocations, Mounting Military Presence|date=28 September 2007|publisher=ScienceMode}}</ref> have repeatedly documented and condemned widespread human rights violations in Myanmar. The ''Freedom in the World 2011'' report by [[Freedom House]] notes, "The military junta has ... suppressed nearly all basic rights; and committed human rights abuses with impunity." In July 2013, the [[Assistance Association for Political Prisoners]] indicated that there were approximately 100 political prisoners being held in Burmese prisons.<ref name="mmtimes1">{{cite news|date=24 July 2013|title=Myanmar set to release some 70 prisoners|newspaper=The Myanmar Times|url=http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/national-news/7577-myanmar-set-to-release-some-70-prisoners.html|access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref><ref name="irrawaddy1">{{cite news|last=Weng|first=Lawi|date=24 July 2013|title=Burma Govt Releases 73 Political Prisoners|url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/burma/burma-govt-releases-73-political-prisoners.html|access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Myanmar: Final push on political prisoners needed|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/50659a382.html|access-date=19 March 2013|date=27 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Burma Frees 56 Political Prisoners|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/burma-frees-fifty-six-political-prisoners-day-after-sanctions-dropped/1647578.html|access-date=26 April 2013|publisher=Voice of America|date=22 April 2013}}</ref> Evidence gathered by a British researcher was published in 2005 regarding the extermination or "Burmisation" of certain ethnic minorities, such as the [[Karen people|Karen]], [[Karenni]] and [[Shan people|Shan]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Guardia |first=Anton La |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/Myanmarmyanmar/1492726/Myanmar%27s-%27slow-genocide%27-is-revealed-through-the-eyes-of-its-child-victims.html |title=Myanmar's 'slow genocide' is revealed through the eyes of its child victims |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=24 June 2005 |access-date=20 November 2012 |location=London}}{{dead link|date=September 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Mae La refugee camp2.jpg|thumb|[[Mae La refugee camp|Mae La camp]], [[Tak Province|Tak]], Thailand, one of the largest of nine [[UNHCR]] camps in Thailand<ref>{{cite web |title=2013 UNHCR country operations profile – Thailand |url=http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e489646.html |access-date=15 May 2013}}</ref>]]

Based on the evidence gathered by Amnesty photographs and video of the ongoing armed conflict between the Myanmar military and the [[Arakan Army (Kachin State)|Arakan Army]] (AA), attacks escalated on civilians in Rakhine State. Ming Yu Hah, [[Amnesty International]]’s Deputy Regional Director for Campaigns said, the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] must urgently refer the situation in Myanmar to the [[International Criminal Court]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/10/myanmar-villages-burned-civilians-injured-rakhine-state-conflict/|title=Myanmar: Villages burned, civilians injured and killed as Rakhine State conflict escalates|access-date=12 October 2020|website=Amnesty International}}</ref>

==== Child soldiers ====

Child soldiers had played a major part in the Burmese Army until around 2012. ''The Independent'' reported in June 2012 that "Children are being sold as conscripts into the Burmese military for as little as $40 and a bag of rice or a can of petrol."<ref>{{cite news|title=Two Burmese children a week conscripted into military |newspaper=The Independent|author=Taylor, Jerome|date=19 June 2012|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/two-burmese-children-a-week-conscripted-into-military-7858858.html|access-date=15 May 2013|location=London}}</ref> The UN's Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict, [[Radhika Coomaraswamy]], who stepped down from her position a week later, met representatives of the government of Myanmar in July 2012 and stated that she hoped the government's signing of an action plan would "signal a transformation."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/News/briefings/docs/2012/120705_Guest.doc.htm |title=Press Conference on Action Plan to End Recruitment of Child Soldiers in Myanmar|publisher=United Nations|date=5 July 2012|access-date=6 July 2013}}</ref> In September 2012, the Myanmar Armed Forces released 42 child soldiers, and the [[International Labour Organization]] met with representatives of the government as well as the [[Kachin Independence Army]] to secure the release of more child soldiers.<ref>{{cite news|title=ILO in Talks with Kachins over Child Soldiers |author=Weng, Lawi |work=The Irrawaddy|date=5 September 2012|url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/archives/13354|access-date=15 May 2013}}</ref> According to Samantha Power, a U.S. delegation raised the issue of child soldiers with the government in October 2012. However, she did not comment on the government's progress towards reform in this area.<ref name=ShanVsGovt />

==== Slavery and human trafficking ====

[[Unfree labour|Forced labour]], [[human trafficking]], and [[child labour]] are common in Myanmar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA160201998 |title=Myanmar: 10th anniversary of military repression |access-date=14 July 2006 |date=7 August 1998 |publisher=[[Amnesty International]]|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060824024228/http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA160201998 |archive-date = 24 August 2006}}</ref> The military is also notorious for rampant use of sexual violence.<ref name=UNHR /> In 2007 the international movement to defend women's human rights issues in Myanmar was said to be gaining speed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.womenofburma.org/Statement&Release/state_of_terror_report.pdf |title=State of Terror report |access-date=21 May 2007 |date=1 February 2007 |publisher=[[Women's League of Burma]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528044207/http://www.womenofburma.org/Statement%26Release/state_of_terror_report.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Human trafficking happens mostly to women who are unemployed and have low incomes. They are mainly targeted or deceived by brokers into making them believe that better opportunities and wages exist for them abroad.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://un-act.org/myanmar/|title=The Trafficking Situation|access-date=6 May 2019|archive-date=6 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506104746/http://un-act.org/myanmar/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2017, the government reported investigating 185 trafficking cases. The government of Burma makes little effort to eliminate human trafficking. Burmese armed forces compel troops to acquire labour and supplies from local communities. The [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] reported that both the government and Tatmadaw were complicit in sex and labour trafficking.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2018/282623.htm|title=Burma|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725003051/https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2018/282623.htm|archive-date=25 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Women and girls from all [[List of ethnic groups in Myanmar|ethnic groups]] and foreigners have been victims of sex trafficking in Myanmar. They are forced into prostitution, marriages, and or pregnancies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://un-act.org/myanmar/|title=Myanmar UN ACT|website=UN ACT|access-date=6 May 2019|archive-date=6 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506104746/http://un-act.org/myanmar/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/03/21/give-us-baby-and-well-let-you-go/trafficking-kachin-brides-myanmar-china|title=Give Us a Baby and We'll Let You Go: Trafficking of Kachin Brides from Myanmar to China|date=21 March 2019|website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref>

==== Genocide allegations and crimes against Rohingya people ====

[[File:Displaced Rohingya people in Rakhine State (8280610831).jpg|thumb|Displaced [[Rohingya people]] of Myanmar<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/dec/20/Myanmar-rohingya-muslim-refugee-camps | title=Trapped inside Myanmar's refugee camps, the Rohingya people call for recognition | work=The Guardian | date=20 December 2012 | access-date=10 February 2015}}{{dead link|date=September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=US Holocaust Museum highlights plight of Myanmar's downtrodden Rohingya Muslims| url=http://www.foxnews.com/us/2013/11/06/us-holocaust-museum-highlights-plight-myanmar-downtrodden-rohingya-muslims/ |date=6 November 2013|agency=[[Associated Press]]|publisher=[[Fox News Channel]]}}</ref> |alt=]]

{{See also|Rohingya conflict|2013 Myanmar anti-Muslim riots|2016–17 Rohingya persecution in Myanmar}}

The [[Rohingya people]] have consistently faced human rights abuses by the Burmese regime that has refused to acknowledge them as Burmese citizens (despite some of them having lived in Burma for over three generations)—the Rohingya have been denied Burmese citizenship since the enactment of a [[Myanmar nationality law|1982 citizenship law]].<ref name=rohingya>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7872635.stm|title=What drive the Rohingya to sea? |publisher=BBC |date=5 February 2009|access-date=29 July 2012| author=Head, Jonathan }}</ref> The law created three categories of citizenship: citizenship, associate citizenship, and naturalised citizenship. Citizenship is given to those who belong to one of the national races such as Kachin, Kayah (Karenni), Karen, Chin, Burman, Mon, Rakhine, Shan, Kaman, or Zerbadee. Associate citizenship is given to those who cannot prove their ancestors settled in Myanmar before 1823 but can prove they have one grandparent, or pre-1823 ancestor, who was a citizen of another country, as well as people who applied for citizenship in 1948 and qualified then by those laws. Naturalised citizenship is only given to those who have at least one parent with one of these types of Burmese citizenship or can provide "conclusive evidence" that their parents entered and resided in Burma prior to independence in 1948.<ref>{{citation | url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2000/burma/burm005-02.htm | title= 2000 Human Rights Report III. Discrimination in Arakan | publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] | access-date=14 December 2014}}</ref> The Burmese regime has attempted to forcibly expel Rohingya and bring in non-Rohingyas to replace them<ref name="South East Asia pg. 342">{{cite book |title=A Handbook of Terrorism and Insurgency in South East Asia| editor=Tan, Andrew T. H.| chapter=Chapter 16, State Terrorism in Arakan|author1=Islam, Syed |author2=Islam, Serajul |publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-84542-543-2 |page=342 |year=2007}}</ref>—this policy has resulted in the expulsion of approximately half of the 800,000<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/burmas-monks-call-for-muslim-community-to-be-shunned-7973317.html | title=Burma's monks call for Muslim community to be shunned | work=The Independent | access-date=15 September 2014 | author=Hindstrom, Hanna | date=25 July 2012}}</ref> Rohingya from Burma, while the Rohingya people have been described as "among the world's least wanted"<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8521280.stm| title=Bangladesh accused of 'crackdown' on Rohingya refugees |publisher=BBC | date=18 February 2010| access-date=29 July 2012 | author=Dummett, Mark }}</ref> and "one of the world's most persecuted minorities."<ref name="South East Asia pg. 342" /><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refdaily?pass=463ef21123&id=4fe952205 | title=Myanmar, Bangladesh leaders 'to discuss Rohingya' | agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] | date=25 June 2012 | access-date=15 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://thediplomat.com/asean-beat/2012/10/09/the-rohingyas-place-in-a-democratic-burma/| title=The Rohingya: Unwanted at Home, Unwelcome Abroad |work=[[The Diplomat]] | date=9 October 2012 |author1=Bento, Lucas |author2=Yusuf, Guled |name-list-style=amp }}</ref> But the origin of the "most persecuted minority" statement is unclear.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/national-news/7376-origin-of-most-persecuted-minority-statement-unclear.html/| title=Origin of 'most persecuted minority' statement unclear | date=8 July 2013 | author=Tim MclaughLin }}</ref>

Rohingya are not allowed to travel without official permission, are banned from owning land, and are required to sign a commitment to have no more than two children.<ref name=rohingya /> As of July 2012, the Myanmar government does not include the Rohingya minority group—classified as [[Statelessness|stateless]] Bengali Muslims from Bangladesh since 1982—on the government's list of more than 130 ethnic races and, therefore, the government states that they have no claim to Myanmar citizenship.<ref>{{cite news| url= http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3703383.ece|title= Rohingyas are not citizens: Myanmar minister| date= 30 July 2012 | location=Chennai, India| work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

In 2007 German professor [[Bassam Tibi]] suggested that the Rohingya conflict may be driven by an Islamist political agenda to impose religious laws,<ref>{{cite book |last=Bassam |first=T |year=2007 |title=Political Islam, World Politics and Europe: Democratic Peace and EuroIslam versus Global Jihad |location=New York |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> while non-religious causes have also been raised, such as a lingering resentment over the violence that occurred during the [[Japanese occupation of Burma]] in World War II—during this time period the British allied themselves with the Rohingya<ref>{{cite book|title=Defeat into Victory: Battling Japan in Burma and India, 1942–1945|author=Slim, William |year=2009|publisher=Pan|location=London|isbn=978-0-330-50997-8}}</ref> and fought against the [[State of Burma|puppet government of Burma]] (composed mostly of Bamar Japanese) that helped to establish the Tatmadaw military organisation that remains in power as of March 2013.

Since the democratic transition began in 2011, there has been continuous violence as 280 people have been killed and 140,000 forced to flee from their homes in the Rakhine state.<ref>{{cite news|title=Exodus grows as Muslim Rohingya flee persecution in Myanmar homeland|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/11/18/asia-pacific/crime-legal-asia-pacific/exodus-grows-muslim-rohigya-flee-persecution-myanmar-homeland/|access-date=14 December 2014|newspaper=Japan Times|date=18 November 2014}}</ref> A UN envoy reported in March 2013 that unrest had re-emerged between Myanmar's [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Muslims|Muslim]] communities, with violence spreading to towns that are located closer to Yangon.<ref>{{cite news|title='Brutal efficiency' in Myanmar attacks: UN|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/breaking-news/brutal-efficiency-in-myanmar-attacks-un/story-fn3dxix6-1226607261777|access-date=27 March 2013|newspaper=The Australian|date=27 March 2013|agency=Australian Associated Press}}</ref>

==== Government reforms ====

According to the [[Crisis Group]],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/south-east-asia/burma-myanmar/B127-myanmar-major-reform-underway.aspx | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202223754/http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/south-east-asia/burma-myanmar/B127-myanmar-major-reform-underway.aspx | archive-date=2 December 2012 | title=Major Reform Underway | publisher=Crisis Group | date=22 September 2011 | access-date=29 August 2011}}</ref> since Myanmar transitioned to a new government in August 2011, the country's human rights record has been improving. Previously giving Myanmar its lowest rating of 7, the 2012 ''Freedom in the World'' report also notes improvement, giving Myanmar a 6 for improvements in civil liberties and political rights, the release of political prisoners, and a loosening of restrictions.<ref>{{cite web|title=Freedom in the World 2012: Burma|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2012/burma-0|publisher=Freedom House|access-date=4 February 2012}}</ref> In 2013, Myanmar improved yet again, receiving a score of 5 in civil liberties and 6 in political freedoms.<ref>{{cite web|title=Burma|url=http://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/burma|access-date=22 November 2013|author=Freedom House|year=2013}}</ref>

The government has assembled a [[Myanmar National Human Rights Commission|National Human Rights Commission]] that consists of 15 members from various backgrounds.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://australianetworknews.com/stories/201109/3312219.htm?desktop |title=Burma gets rights commission |publisher=Australia Network News |date=7 September 2011 |access-date=29 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926011538/http://australianetworknews.com/stories/201109/3312219.htm?desktop |archive-date=26 September 2011 }}</ref> Several activists in exile, including Thee Lay Thee Anyeint members, have returned to Myanmar after President Thein Sein's invitation to expatriates to return home to work for national development.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mmtimes.com/2011/news/593/news59307.html |title=Anyeint group returns from exile in Thailand |publisher=MM Times |date=19–25 September 2011 |access-date=29 August 2011 |author=Kyaw Hsu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930085339/http://www.mmtimes.com/2011/news/593/news59307.html |archive-date=30 September 2011 }}</ref> In an address to the United Nations Security Council on 22 September 2011, Myanmar's Foreign Minister [[Wunna Maung Lwin]] confirmed the government's intention to release prisoners in the near future.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/burma-flags-mass-release-of-political-prisoners-20110928-1kx9d.html | title=Burma flags mass release of political prisoners |work=The Sydney Morning Herald | date=29 September 2011 | access-date=29 August 2011 | author=Murdoch, Lindsay }}</ref>

The government has also relaxed reporting laws, but these remain highly restrictive.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/09/20/free-press-is-the-key-to-myanmar-reform.htmldawn |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120729234619/http://www.dawn.com/2011/09/20/free-press-is-the-key-to-myanmar-reform.htmldawn |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 July 2012 |title=Free press is the key to Myanmar reform |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=20 September 2011 |access-date=29 August 2011 }}</ref> In September 2011, several banned websites, including YouTube, [[Democratic Voice of Burma]] and [[Voice of America]], were unblocked.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/burmese-junta-relaxes-access-to-foreign-websites-2356125.html | title=Burmese junta relaxes access to foreign websites |work=The Independent |location=London | date=17 September 2011 | access-date=29 August 2011 | author=Buncombe, Andrew }}</ref> A 2011 report by the [[Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations]] found that, while contact with the Myanmar government was constrained by donor restrictions, international humanitarian non-governmental organisations (NGOs) see opportunities for effective advocacy with government officials, especially at the local level. At the same time, international NGOs are mindful of the ethical quandary of how to work with the government without bolstering or appeasing it.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120114003421/http://www.hks.harvard.edu/hauser/engage/humanitarianorganizations/research/assets/Myanmar%20Report%20Final%20Version%209-8-11.pdf Working Through Ambiguity: International NGOs in Myanmar]. Soubhik Ronnie Saha The Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations Harvard University September 2011</ref>[[File:Kutupalong Refugee Camp (John Owens-VOA).jpg|thumb|A Rohingya refugee camp in Bangladesh|alt=]]

Following Thein Sein's first ever visit to the UK and a meeting with Prime Minister [[David Cameron]], the Myanmar president declared that all of his nation's political prisoners will be released by the end of 2013, in addition to a statement of support for the well-being of the Rohingya Muslim community. In a speech at [[Chatham House]], he revealed that "We [Myanmar government] are reviewing all cases. I guarantee to you that by the end of this year, there will be no prisoners of conscience in Myanmar.", in addition to expressing a desire to strengthen links between the UK and Myanmar's military forces.<ref>{{cite news|title=No more political prisoners: Myanmar|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/breaking-news/no-more-political-prisoners-myanmar/story-fn3dxix6-1226679907770?net_sub_uid=44933799|access-date=16 July 2013|newspaper=The Australian|date=16 July 2013|author=Woodcock, Andrew }}</ref>

Homosexual acts are [[LGBT rights in Myanmar|illegal in Myanmar]] and can be punishable by life imprisonment.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/gay-lesbian-bisexual-relationships-illegal-in-74-countries-a7033666.html |title= LGBT relationships are illegal in 74 countries, research finds | work = The Independent| date=17 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=State Sponsored Homophobia 2016: A world survey of sexual orientation laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition|url=http://ilga.org/downloads/02_ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2016_ENG_WEB_150516.pdf|work=[[International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association]]|date=17 May 2016}}</ref>

In 2016, Myanmar leader [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] was accused of failing to protect Myanmar's [[Islam in Myanmar|Muslim]] minority.<ref>"[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/rohingya-muslims-burma-myanmar-aung-san-suu-kyi-legitimising-genocide-a7439151.html Burma's Aung San Suu Kyi accused of 'legitimising genocide of Rohingya Muslims']". ''The Independent''. 25 November 2016.</ref> Since August 2017 [[Médecins Sans Frontières|Doctors Without Borders]] have treated 113 Rohingya refugee females for sexual assault with all but one describing military assailants.<ref>AP News. (12 December 2017). "Army's rape of Rohingya women sweeping, methodical: AP". [http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/12/rape-rohingya-women-sweeping-methodical-ap-171211063236832.html Al Jazeera website]. Retrieved 12 December 2017.</ref>

== Economy ==

[[File:Myanmar treemap.png|thumb|upright=2.05|A proportional representation of Burma's exports in 2017.]]

{{further|Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)|Transport in Myanmar|Oil and gas industry in Myanmar}}

Myanmar's [[economy]] is one of the [[fastest growing economies]] in the world with a nominal GDP of USD $76.09 billion in 2019 and an estimated purchasing power adjusted GDP of USD $327.629 billion in 2017 according to the World Bank.<ref>{{cite news|title=world bank indicator|work=World Bank|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=MM}}</ref> Foreigners are able to legally lease but not own property.<ref name="aht">{{cite news|last=Aung Hla Htun|date=16 March 2012|title=Exclusive: Myanmar drafts new foreign investment rules|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/16/us-myanmar-investment-idUSBRE82F0IY20120316|access-date=17 March 2012}}</ref> In December 2014, Myanmar set up its first stock exchange, the [[Yangon Stock Exchange]].<ref>{{cite news|date=25 March 2016|title=Yangon Stock Exchange Formally Opens for Business|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2016/03/25/world/asia/ap-as-myanmar-stock-exchange.html|access-date=25 March 2016}}</ref>

The informal economy's share in Myanmar is one of the biggest in the world and is closely linked to corruption, smuggling and illegal trade activities.<ref>{{cite book | first=Ian | last=Brown | year=2005 | title=A Colonial Economy in Crisis | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-0-415-30580-8}}</ref><ref>Stokke, Kristian; Vakulchuk, Roman and Indra Overland (2018) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323018961 Myanmar: A Political Economy Analysis]. Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI). Report commissioned by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.</ref> In addition, decades of civil war and unrest have contributed to Myanmar's current levels of poverty and lack of economic progress. Myanmar lacks adequate [[infrastructure]]. Goods travel primarily across the Thai border (where most illegal drugs are exported) and along the Irrawaddy River.<ref name="idea">{{cite web |url=http://www.idea.int/asia_pacific/burma/upload/chap3.pdf |title=Challenges to Democratization in Burma |access-date=12 July 2006 |date=November 2001 |publisher=International IDEA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060723083624/http://www.idea.int/asia_pacific/burma/upload/chap3.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2006 }}</ref>

Both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit in the early 2010s. Many Western nations, including the United States and Canada, and the [[European Union]], historically imposed investment and trade sanctions on Myanmar. The United States and European Union eased most of their sanctions in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hargreaves |first=Steve |url=https://money.cnn.com/2013/06/18/news/economy/myanmar-business/index.html?iid=HP_LN |title=Myanmar: Tales from the last business frontier |publisher=CNN |date=18 June 2013 |access-date=6 July 2013}}</ref> From May 2012 to February 2013, the United States began to lift its economic sanctions on Myanmar "in response to the historic reforms that have been taking place in that country."<ref>{{cite web|date=18 March 2013|title=Frequently Asked Questions and Answers|url=http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/faqs/Sanctions/Pages/answer.aspx#268|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727011638/http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/faqs/Sanctions/Pages/answer.aspx|archive-date=27 July 2013|access-date=4 August 2013|publisher=U.S. Department of the Treasury}}</ref> Foreign investment comes primarily from China, Singapore, the Philippines, South Korea, India, and Thailand.<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Fullbrook |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/FK04Ae03.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041106012133/http://atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/FK04Ae03.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=6 November 2004 |title=So long US, hello China, India |work=Asia Times |date=4 November 2004 |access-date=14 July 2006}}</ref> The military has stakes in some major industrial corporations of the country (from oil production and consumer goods to transportation and tourism).<ref name="mccartan">{{cite news|last=McCartan|first=Brian|date=28 February 2012|title=Myanmar military in the money|work=Asia Times|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/NB28Ae02.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227154915/http://atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/NB28Ae02.html|url-status=unfit|archive-date=27 February 2012|access-date=30 September 2012}}</ref><ref name="brady">{{cite news|last=Brady|first=Brendan|date=7 September 2012|title=Boom Days in Burma|work=Newsweek|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2012/09/16/boom-days-in-burma.html|url-status=dead|access-date=30 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929192043/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2012/09/16/boom-days-in-burma.html|archive-date=29 September 2012}}</ref>

=== Economic history ===

[[File:Myingyan Railway Station 2.jpg|thumb|The trains are relatively slow in Myanmar. The railway trip from [[Bagan]] to [[Mandalay]] takes about 7.5 hours (179 km).]]

Under the [[British Empire|British]] administration, the people of Burma were at the bottom of the social hierarchy, with [[Ethnic groups in Europe|Europeans]] at the top, Indians, Chinese, and Christianized minorities in the middle, and Buddhist Burmese at the bottom.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Myint-U |first=Thant |title=The river of lost footsteps: histories of Burma |publisher=[[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]] |location=New York |edition=1st |date=2006 |oclc=65064707 |isbn=978-0-374-16342-6}}</ref> Forcefully integrated into the world economy, Burma's economy grew in extractive industries and [[cash crop]]s agriculture; much of the wealth was concentrated in the hands of Europeans, however. The country became the world's largest exporter of [[rice]], mainly to European markets, while other colonies like India suffered mass starvation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Davis |first=Mike |title=Late Victorian holocausts: El Niño famines and the making of the third world |publisher=Verso |location=London |date=2001 |oclc=45636958 |isbn=1-85984-739-0}}</ref> The British followed the ideologies of [[Social Darwinism]] and the free market, and opened up the country to large-scale immigration with Rangoon exceeding New York City as the greatest immigration port in the world in the 1920s. Historian Thant Myint-U states, "This was out of a total population of only 13 million; it was equivalent to the United Kingdom today taking 2 million people a year." By then, in most of the largest cities in Burma, [[Rangoon]], [[Akyab]], [[Pathein|Bassein]] and [[Moulmein]], the Indian immigrants formed a majority of the population. The Burmese under British rule felt helpless, and reacted with a "racism that combined feelings of superiority and fear".<ref name=":0" />

Crude oil production, an indigenous industry of [[Yenangyaung]], was taken over by the British and put under [[Burmah Oil]] monopoly. British Burma began exporting crude oil in 1853.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://burma.total.com/myanmar-en/oil-and-gas-in-myanmar/oil-and-gas-in-myanmar-900130.html |title=Total in Myanmar : commitment and responsability(sic) |author=Total |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415084151/http://burma.total.com/myanmar-en/oil-and-gas-in-myanmar/oil-and-gas-in-myanmar-900130.html |archive-date=15 April 2015 }}</ref> It produced 75% of the world's teak.<ref name="steinberg" /> The wealth was however, mainly concentrated in the hands of Europeans. In the 1930s, agricultural production fell dramatically as international rice prices declined and did not recover for several decades.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.soas.ac.uk/sbbr/editions/file64274.pdf|journal=SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research|volume= 1|issue=1|date=Spring 2003|issn=1479-8484|title=The Burma Development Disaster in Comparative Historical Perspective|author=Booth, Anne}}</ref>

During the Japanese invasion of Burma in World War II, the British followed a [[scorched earth]] policy. They destroyed the major government buildings, oil wells and mines for tungsten, tin, lead and silver to keep them from the Japanese. Myanmar was bombed extensively by the Allies. After independence, the country was in ruins with its major infrastructure completely destroyed. With the loss of India, Burma lost relevance and obtained independence from the British. After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu embarked upon a policy of nationalisation and the state was declared the owner of all land. The government tried to implement an eight-year plan partly financed by injecting money into the economy which caused some inflation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/burma.htm |title=Political and Economic History of Myanmar (Burma) Economics |access-date=8 July 2006|last=Watkins |first=Thayer |publisher=San Jose State University}}</ref>

The 1962 coup d'état was followed by an economic scheme called the [[Burmese Way to Socialism]], a plan to nationalise all industries, with the exception of [[agriculture]]. While the economy continued to grow at a slower rate, the country eschewed a Western-oriented development model, and by the 1980s, was left behind capitalist powerhouses like [[Singapore]] which were integrated into Western economy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Taylor, Robert H. |title=General Ne Win : a political biography|date=25 May 2015|isbn=978-981-4620-13-0|location=Singapore|oclc=934623309}}</ref><ref name="ruin" /> Myanmar asked for admittance to a [[Least developed countries|least developed country]] status in 1987 to receive debt relief.<ref>{{cite web |year=2005 |url=https://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ldc/list.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026045553/http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ldc/list.htm|archive-date=26 October 2013|title=List of Least Developed Countries |publisher=UN-OHRLLS }}</ref>

=== Agriculture ===

[[File:Rijstvelden Myanmar 2006.jpg|thumb|Rice is Myanmar's largest agricultural product.]]

The major agricultural product is [[Rice production in Myanmar|rice]], which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the [[International Rice Research Institute]] 52 modern rice varieties were released in the country between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's ricelands, including 98 per cent of the irrigated areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irri.org/media/facts/pdfs/myanmar.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050907011925/http://www.irri.org/media/facts/pdfs/myanmar.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 September 2005 |title=Myanmar and IRRI }} {{small|(21.2 KB)}}, Facts About Cooperation, International Rice Research Institute. Retrieved 25 September 2007.</ref> In 2008 rice production was estimated at 50 million tons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx |title=Faostat |publisher=Faostat.fao.org |access-date=17 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713020710/http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx |archive-date=13 July 2011 }}</ref>

=== Extractive industries ===

Myanmar produces precious stones such as [[Ruby|rubies]], [[sapphire]]s, [[pearl]]s, and [[jade]]. [[Ruby|Rubies]] are the biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue. Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems. Myanmar's "Valley of Rubies", the mountainous [[Mogok Township|Mogok]] area, {{convert|200|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of [[Mandalay]], is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue sapphires.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uvm.edu/envnr/gemecology/index.html|title=Gems of Burma and their Environmental Impact |publisher=Uvm.edu |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100526104410/http://www.uvm.edu/envnr/gemecology/index.html |archive-date=26 May 2010}}</ref>

Many [[United States|U.S.]] and [[European Union|European]] jewellery companies, including Bulgari, Tiffany and Cartier, refuse to import these stones based on reports of deplorable working conditions in the mines. [[Human Rights Watch]] has encouraged a complete ban on the purchase of Burmese gems based on these reports and because nearly all profits go to the ruling junta, as the majority of mining activity in the country is government-run.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.hrw.org/en/news/2007/11/11/burma-gem-trade-bolsters-military-regime-fuels-atrocities |title=Burma: Gem Trade Bolsters Military Regime, Fuels Atrocities |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=11 November 2007}}</ref> The government of Myanmar controls the gem trade by direct ownership or by joint ventures with private owners of mines.<ref>{{cite news |author=Ferro, Shane |date=19 July 2011 |url=http://www.blouinartinfo.com/news/story/38144/burmese-gem-emporium-rakes-in-15-billion-despite-human-rights-abuse-concerns/ |title=Burmese Gem Emporium Rakes in $1.5 Billion Despite Human Rights Abuse Concerns |publisher=Blouin ARTINFO |access-date=15 May 2013}}</ref>

Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas. [[Myanmar Engineering Society]] has identified at least 39 locations capable of geothermal power production and some of these hydrothermal reservoirs lie quite close to Yangon which is a significant underutilised resource for electrical production.<ref>{{citation |last=DuByne |first=David |title=Geothermal Energy in Myanmar Securing Electricity for Eastern Border Development |url=http://www.oilseedcrops.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Geothermal-Energy-in-Myanmar-Securing-Electricity-for-Eastern-Border-Development-David-DuByne.pdf |journal=Myanmar Business Today Magazine |date=November 2015 |pages=6–8}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===

[[File:Tourists in Myanmar (8397039153).jpg|thumb|Tourists in Myanmar]]

[[File:U Bein Bridge Mandalay 4.jpg|thumb|[[U Bein Bridge]] in Mandalay.]]

The government receives a significant percentage of the income of private-sector tourism services.<ref>{{cite web |last=Enescu, Raluca |url=http://www.tayzathuria.org.uk/bd/2006/12/24/re.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430235921/http://www.tayzathuria.org.uk/bd/2006/12/24/re.htm |archive-date=30 April 2011 |title=Burma Digest |publisher=Tayzathuria.org.uk |date=24 December 2006}}</ref> The most popular available tourist destinations in Myanmar include big cities such as [[Yangon]] and [[Mandalay]]; religious sites in [[Mon State]], [[Pindaya]], [[Bago, Burma|Bago]] and [[Hpa-An]]; nature trails in [[Inle Lake]], [[Kengtung]], [[Putao District|Putao]], [[Pyin Oo Lwin]]; ancient cities such as [[Bagan]] and [[Mrauk-U]]; as well as beaches in [[Nabule]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.southernmyanmar.com/beaches-2/| title=Southern Myanmar |page=Tourist Destinations |website=southernmyanmar.com |access-date=20 May 2015}}</ref> [[Ngapali]], [[Ngwe Saung Beach|Ngwe-Saung]], [[Mergui]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://birma.com/destinations-in-myanmar | title=Myanmar Travel Agency |page=Tourist Destinations |website=birma.com |access-date=20 October 2013}}</ref> Nevertheless, much of the country is off-limits to tourists, and interactions between foreigners and the people of Myanmar, particularly in the border regions, are subject to police scrutiny. They are not to discuss politics with foreigners, under penalty of imprisonment and, in 2001, the Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board issued an order for local officials to protect tourists and limit "unnecessary contact" between foreigners and ordinary Burmese people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.burmacampaign.org.uk/action_holiday.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429173300/http://www.burmacampaign.org.uk/action_holiday.html |archive-date=29 April 2009 |title=The Tourism Campaign – Campaigns |publisher=The Burma Campaign UK |access-date=17 April 2010}}</ref>

The most common way for travellers to enter the country is by air.<ref name="LP1">{{cite web|title=Getting there & away|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/myanmar-burma/transport/getting-there-away|publisher=lonelyplanet.com|access-date=4 August 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801235500/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/myanmar-burma/transport/getting-there-away|archive-date=1 August 2013}}</ref> According to the website ''[[Lonely Planet]]'', getting into Myanmar is problematic: "No bus or train service connects Myanmar with another country, nor can you travel by car or motorcycle across the border – you must walk across." They further state that "It is not possible for foreigners to go to/from Myanmar by sea or river."<ref name="LP1" /> There are a few border crossings that allow the passage of private vehicles, such as the border between [[Ruili]] (China) to [[Muse, Burma|Mu-se]], the border between [[Htee Kee]] (Myanmar) and [[Phu Nam Ron]] (Thailand)—the most direct border between [[Dawei]] and [[Kanchanaburi]], and the border between [[Myawaddy]] and [[Mae Sot]], Thailand. At least one tourist company has successfully run commercial overland routes through these borders since 2013.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dragoman.com/holidays/details/south-east-asia-between-kunming-and-bangkok-via-burma|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129052459/http://www.dragoman.com/holidays/details/south-east-asia-between-kunming-and-bangkok-via-burma|url-status=dead|title=Dragoman|archive-date=29 January 2015}}</ref>

Flights are available from most countries, though direct flights are limited to mainly Thai and other [[ASEAN]] airlines. According to ''[[Weekly Eleven|Eleven]]'' magazine, "In the past, there were only 15 international airlines and increasing numbers of airlines have begun launching direct flights from Japan, Qatar, Taiwan, South Korea, Germany and Singapore."<ref name="11.1">{{cite web|title=International airlines to open direct flights to Myanmar|url=http://elevenmyanmar.com/business/2945-international-airlines-to-open-direct-flights-to-myanmar|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110164418/http://elevenmyanmar.com/business/2945-international-airlines-to-open-direct-flights-to-myanmar|archive-date=10 November 2013|date=2 August 2013}}</ref> Expansions were expected in September 2013 but are mainly [[Thailand|Thai]] and other Asian-based airlines.<ref name="11.1" />

== Society ==

=== Demographics ===

[[File:Downtownflatsyangon.jpg|thumb|A block of apartments in downtown Yangon, facing [[Bogyoke Market]]. Much of Yangon's urban population resides in densely populated flats.]]

{|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px"

! colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;"|Population{{UN Population|ref}}

|-

! style="background:#cfb;"|Year

! style="background:#cfb;"|Million

|-

|style="text-align:left;"|1950 ||style="text-align:right;"|17.1

|-

|style="text-align:left;"|2000 ||style="text-align:right;"|46.1

|-

|style="text-align:left;"|{{UN Population|Year}} ||style="text-align:right;"|{{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN Population|Myanmar}}|R}}/1e6 round 1}}

|}

[[File:Bevölkerungspyramide Myanmar 2016.png|thumb|Population pyramid 2016]]

The provisional results of the [[2014 Myanmar Census]] show that the total population is 51,419,420.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spoorenberg |first1=Thomas |year=2015 |title=Provisional results of the 2014 census of Myanmar: The surprise that wasn't |journal=Asian Population Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=4–6 |doi=10.1080/17441730.2014.972084 |s2cid=154114929 }}</ref> This figure includes an estimated 1,206,353 persons in parts of northern [[Rakhine State]], [[Kachin State]] and [[Kayin State]] who were not counted.<ref name="spoor">{{cite journal |last1=Spoorenberg |first1=Thomas |year=2015 |title=Myanmar's first census in more than 30 years: A radical revision of the official population count |journal=Population & Societies |volume=No. 527 |issue=November |pages=1–4 |url=http://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/24592/population.societies.2015.527.census.birma.en.en.pdf }}</ref> People who were out of the country at the time of the census are not included in these figures. There are over 600,000 registered [[migrant worker]]s from Myanmar in [[Thailand]], and millions more work illegally. Burmese citizens account for 80% of all migrant workers in Thailand.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA390012005 |title=Thailand: The Plight of Burmese Migrant Workers |access-date=13 July 2006 |date=8 June 2006 |publisher=Amnesty International |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060626102346/http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA390012005 |archive-date = 26 June 2006}}</ref> The national population density is {{convert|76|/km2}}, among the lowest in Southeast Asia.

Myanmar's fertility rate {{As of|2011|lc=y}} is 2.23, which is slightly above [[Sub-replacement fertility|replacement level]]<ref name="jon" /> and is low compared to [[Southeast Asia|Southeast Asian countries]] of similar economic standing, such as [[Cambodia]] (3.18) and Laos (4.41).<ref name="jon" /> There has been a significant decline in fertility in the 2000s, from a rate of 4.7 children per woman in 1983, down to 2.4 in 2001, despite the absence of any national population policy.<ref name="jon">{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Gavin W. |year=2007 |title=Delayed Marriage and Very Low Fertility in Pacific Asia |journal=Population and Development Review |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=453–478 |url=http://dahuang.dhxy.info/population/Delayed_Marriage_Fertility09.pdf |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5x361pgmm?url=http://dahuang.dhxy.info/population/Delayed_Marriage_Fertility09.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 March 2011 |doi=10.1111/j.1728-4457.2007.00180.x |access-date=5 January 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spoorenberg |first1=Thomas |year=2013 |title=Demographic changes in Myanmar since 1983: An examination of official data |journal=Population and Development Review |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=309–324 |doi=10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00593.x }}</ref><ref name="mya">{{cite journal |author=Mon, Myat |year=2000 |title=The Economic Position of Women in Burma |journal=Asian Studies Review |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=243–255 |doi=10.1080/10357820008713272 |s2cid=144323033 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-8403.00076}}</ref> The fertility rate is much lower in urban areas.

The relatively rapid decline in fertility is attributed to several factors, including extreme delays in marriage (almost unparalleled among developing countries in the region), the prevalence of illegal abortions, and the high proportion of single, unmarried women of reproductive age, with 25.9% of women aged 30–34 and 33.1% of men and women aged 25–34 being single.<ref name="mya" /><ref name=mar>[https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/worldmarriage/worldmarriagepatterns2000.pdf WorldMarriage Patterns 2000]. United Nations</ref>

These patterns stem from economic dynamics, including high income inequality, which results in residents of reproductive age opting for delay of marriage and family-building in favour of attempting to find employment and establish some form of wealth;<ref name="mya" /> the average age of marriage in Myanmar is 27.5 for men, 26.4 for women.<ref name="mya" /><ref name=mar />

=== Largest cities ===

=== Ethnic groups ===

{{bar box

|title=Ethnic Composition in Burma (rough estimate)

|titlebar=#ddd

|width=

|left1=Ethnic group

|right1=Percent

|float=right

|bars=

}}

[[File:Ethnolinguistic map of Burma 1972 en.svg|thumb|Ethnolinguistic Groups of Burma/Myanmar|alt=]]

Myanmar is [[Multiculturalism|ethnically diverse]]. The government recognises [[List of ethnic groups in Myanmar|135 distinct ethnic groups]]. There are at least 108 different ethnolinguistic groups in Myanmar, consisting mainly of distinct [[Tibeto-Burman]] peoples, but with sizeable populations of [[Tai–Kadai-speaking peoples|Tai–Kadai]], [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien]], and Austroasiatic (Mon–Khmer) peoples.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=MM |title=Languages of Myanmar |access-date=13 January 2007 |last=Gordon |first=Raymond G., Jr. |year=2005 |work=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition |publisher=SIL International}}</ref>

The [[Bamar people|Bamar]] form an estimated 68% of the population.<ref name="statedept">{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35910.htm |title=Background Note: Burma |access-date=7 July 2006 |date=August 2005 |work=[[Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs]] |publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122194342/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35910.htm |archive-date=22 January 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> 10% of the population are [[Shan people|Shan]].<ref name="statedept" /> The Kayin make up 7% of the population.<ref name="statedept" /> The [[Rakhine people]] constitute 4% of the population. [[Burmese Chinese|Overseas Chinese]] form approximately 3% of the population.<ref name="statedept" /><ref>{{cite book | author=Than, Mya | editor=Suryadinata, Leo | year=1997 | title=Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians}}</ref> Myanmar's ethnic [[Minority group|minority]] groups prefer the term "ethnic nationality" over "ethnic minority" as the term "minority" furthers their sense of insecurity in the face of what is often described as "Burmanisation"—the proliferation and domination of the dominant [[Bamar people|Bamar culture]] over minority cultures.

[[Mon people|Mon]], who form 2% of the population, are ethno-linguistically related to the [[Khmer people|Khmer]].<ref name="statedept" /> [[Burmese Indians|Overseas Indians]] are 2%.<ref name="statedept" /> The remainder are [[Kachin people|Kachin]], [[Chin people|Chin]], [[Rohingya people|Rohingya]], [[Anglo-Indian]]s, [[Burmese Gurkha|Gurkha]], [[People of Nepal|Nepali]] and other ethnic minorities. Included in this group are the [[Anglo-Burmese]]. Once forming a large and influential community, the Anglo-Burmese left the country in steady streams from 1958 onwards, principally to Australia and the United Kingdom. It is estimated that 52,000 Anglo-Burmese remain in Myanmar. {{As of|2009}}, 110,000 Burmese [[refugee]]s were living in refugee camps in Thailand.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kato|first=Mariko|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/02/18/national/myanmar-refugees-to-try-resettling/ |title=Myanmar refugees to try resettling |work=Japan Times |date=18 February 2009 |access-date=6 August 2014}}</ref>

Refugee camps exist along Indian, Bangladeshi and Thai borders while several thousand are in [[Malaysia]]. Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800 minority refugees from Myanmar, with the majority being [[Rohingya people|Rohingya]], [[Karen people|Karen]], and [[Red Karen|Karenni]] are principally located along the Thai-Myanmar border.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/publ/opendoc.pdf?tbl=PUBL&id=449676844 |title=Myanmar Refugees in South East Asia |access-date=13 July 2006 |date=April 2006 |format=PDF |publisher=UNHCR |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060621015621/http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/publ/opendoc.pdf?tbl=PUBL&id=449676844 |archive-date=21 June 2006 }}</ref> There are nine permanent refugee camps along the Thai-Myanmar border, most of which were established in the mid-1980s. The refugee camps are under the care of the Thai-Burma Border Consortium (TBBC). Since 2006,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-18563_162-57420502/from-tropical-burma-to-syracuse-refugees-adjust/ |title=From tropical Burma to Syracuse, refugees adjust |work=CBS News |date=25 April 2012 |access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> over 55,000 Burmese [[refugee]]s have been resettled in the United States.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20120914041135/http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/data/ Office Of Refugee Resettlement: Data]". U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.</ref>

The persecution of [[Burmese Indians]], [[Burmese Chinese]] and other ethnic groups after the military coup headed by General [[Ne Win]] in 1962 led to the expulsion or emigration of 300,000 people.<ref>{{cite book|author=Smith, Martin |year=1991|title=Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity|publisher=Zed Books|location=London, New Jersey|pages=43–44, 98, 56–57, 176}}</ref> They migrated to escape [[Racial Discrimination against Burmese Indians|racial discrimination]] and the wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise that took place in 1964.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,875949,00.html |title=Asians v. Asians.|work=Time |date=17 July 1964 |access-date=20 November 2012}}{{subscription required}}</ref> The Anglo-Burmese at this time either fled the country or changed their names and blended in with the broader Burmese society.

Many [[Rohingya people|Rohingya]] Muslims have fled Myanmar. Many refugees headed to neighbouring Bangladesh, including 200,000 in 1978 as a result of the [[King Dragon operation in Arakan]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Macan-Markar |first=Marwaan |title=Burma's Muslim Rohingyas – The New Boat People. |url=http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=45850 |publisher=Ipsnews.net |access-date=6 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311004334/http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=45850 |archive-date=11 March 2009}}</ref> 250,000 more left in 1991.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ford |first=Peter |title=Why deadly race riots could rattle Myanmar's fledgling reforms |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2012/0612/Why-deadly-race-riots-could-rattle-Myanmar-s-fledgling-reforms |work=The Christian Science Monitor |date=12 June 2012 |access-date=6 August 2014}}</ref>

=== Languages ===

Myanmar is home to four major language families: [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]], [[Tai–Kadai languages|Tai–Kadai]], [[Austro-Asiatic languages|Austro-Asiatic]], and [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gordon |first=Raymond G., Jr. |title=Languages of Myanmar |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=MM |publisher=SIL International |year=2005 |access-date=14 July 2006}}</ref> Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely spoken. They include [[Burmese language|Burmese]], [[Karen people|Karen]], [[Jingpo people|Kachin]], [[Chin people|Chin]], and Chinese (mainly [[Hokkien]]). The primary Tai–Kadai language is [[Shan language|Shan]]. [[Mon language|Mon]], [[Palaung language|Palaung]], and [[Va people|Wa]] are the major [[Austroasiatic]] languages spoken in Myanmar. The two major Indo-European languages are [[Pāli|Pali]], the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and English.<ref name="ethno">{{cite web |last=Gordon |first=Raymond G., Jr. |title=Language Family Trees: Sino-Tibetan |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90150 |work=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition |publisher=SIL International |year=2005 |access-date=9 July 2006}}</ref> More than a hundred languages are spoken in total. Since many of them are known only within small tribes around the country, they may have been lost (many if not all) after a few generations.

[[Burmese language|Burmese]], the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of Myanmar, is related to [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]] and Chinese.<ref name="ethno" /> It is written in a [[Burmese script|script]] consisting of circular and semi-circular letters, which were adapted from the [[Mon language|Mon script]], which in turn was developed from a southern Indian script in the 5th century. The earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the 11th century. It is also used to write [[Pāli|Pali]], the sacred language of Theravada Buddhism, as well as several ethnic minority languages, including Shan, several Karen dialects, and Kayah (Karenni), with the addition of specialised characters and [[diacritic]]s for each language.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lwinmoe.friendsofburma.org/doc/myanmar_extension.pdf |title=Proposal for encoding characters for Myanmar minority languages in the UCS |access-date=9 July 2006 |date=2 April 2006 |publisher=International Organization for Standardization |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060723083627/http://lwinmoe.friendsofburma.org/doc/myanmar_extension.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2006}}</ref>

The Burmese language incorporates widespread usage of [[honorific]]s and is age-oriented.<ref name="Myam-ma" /> Burmese society has traditionally stressed the importance of education. In villages, secular schooling often takes place in [[monastery|monasteries]]. Secondary and tertiary education take place at government schools.

=== Religion ===

{{bar box

|title=Religion in Burma ([[2014 Myanmar Census]])<ref name="TUR" /><ref group=nb>Based on the estimated overall population, including both the enumerated and non-enumerated population (51,486,253), and on the assumption that the non-enumerated population in [[Rakhine State]] affiliate with the Islamic faith.</ref>

|float=right

|bars=

{{bar percent|[[Burmese folk religion|Tribal religions]]|Chartreuse|0.8}}

}}

Many religions are practised in Myanmar. Religious edifices and orders have been in existence for many years. The Christian and Muslim populations do, however, face religious persecution and it is hard, if not impossible, for non-Buddhists to join the army or get government jobs, the main route to success in the country.<ref>"Ethnic and Religious Diversity: Myanmar's Unfolding Nemesis", Matthews, Bruce, Institute of South East Asian Studies, Visiting Researcher Series, Volume 2001, No. 3. 2001.</ref> Such persecution and targeting of civilians is particularly notable in eastern Myanmar, where over 3,000 villages have been destroyed in the past ten years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tbbc.org/resources.html#reports |title=Internal Displacement in Eastern Burma 2006 Survey |access-date=4 February 2007 |author=Thailand Burma Border Consortium |year=2007| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070515121040/http://www.tbbc.org/resources.html |archive-date=15 May 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Harry |last=Priestly |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=5380 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119160146/http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=5380 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |title=The Outsiders |work=[[The Irrawaddy]] |date=17 January 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://isrc.payap.ac.th/document/papers/paper23.pdf |title=The Encounter of Missionary Christianity and Resurgent Buddhism in Post-colonial Myanmar |access-date=14 July 2006 |author=Ling, Samuel Ngun |year=2003 |publisher=Payap University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060302235658/http://isrc.payap.ac.th/document/papers/paper23.pdf |archive-date=2 March 2006}}</ref> More than 200,000 Muslims have fled to Bangladesh over the last 20 years to escape persecution.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zatko |first=Martin |title=The Rough Guide to Myanmar|date=2015|page=357}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Dummett |first=Mark |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7019882.stm |title=Burmese exiles in desperate conditions |publisher=BBC News |date=29 September 2007 |access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref>

A large majority of the population practices Buddhism; estimates range from 80%<ref name="pew">[http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/burma-myanmar/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010 Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project: Burma]. [[Pew Research Center]]. 2010.</ref> to 89%.<ref name=Buddhanet>{{cite web | url = http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/burma-txt.htm | title = Buddhanet.net | access-date =17 February 2011}}</ref> According to [[2014 Myanmar Census]], 87.9% of the population identifies as Buddhists.<ref name="TUR" /> [[Theravāda]] Buddhism is the most widespread.<ref name=Buddhanet /> There are some 500,000 Buddhist monks and 75,000 nuns in this country of 54 million.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pyone |first1=Taung |title=Monks in Myanmar have a new target |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2019/11/14/monks-in-myanmar-have-a-new-target |access-date=17 November 2019 |work=The Economist |date=14 November 2019}}</ref> Other religions are practised largely without obstruction, with the notable exception of some religious minorities such as the Rohingya people, who have continued to have their citizenship status denied and treated as illegal immigrants instead,<ref name=rohingya /> and Christians in Chin State.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90131.htm |title=Burma-International Religious Freedom Report 2007 |publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=14 September 2007 }}</ref>

According to 2014 census, 6.2% of the population identifies as Christian; 4.3% as Muslim; 0.8% as followers of tribal religions; 0.5% as [[Hinduism|Hindus]]; 0.2% as followers of other religions; and 0.1% follow no religion.<ref name="TUR">{{cite book | title=The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census Report Volume 2-C | publisher=Department of Population Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population| date=July 2016 | pages=12–15}}</ref> According to the 2010 estimates of the [[Pew Research Center]], 7% of the population is Christian; 4% is Muslim; 1% follows traditional [[animism|animistic]] beliefs; and 2% follow other religions, including [[Mahayana Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], and [[East Asian religions]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90131.htm |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2007 – Burma |publisher=State.gov |access-date=17 April 2010|date=14 September 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35910.htm |title=Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs – Background Note: Burma |publisher=State.gov |access-date=17 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122194342/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35910.htm |archive-date=22 January 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Jehovah's Witnesses have been present since 1914<ref>{{cite book |title=2013 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses |publisher=Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc. |year=2013 |page=85}}</ref> and have about 80 congregations around the country and a branch office in Yangon publishing in 16 languages.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/offices/myanmar |title=Office and Tour Information |publisher=jw.org |access-date=6 November 2015}}</ref>

A tiny Jewish community in Yangon had a synagogue but no resident rabbi to conduct services.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148859.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121191852/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148859.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 November 2010 |title=Burma—International Religious Freedom Report 2010 |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=17 November 2010 |access-date=22 February 2011}}</ref>

[[File:A nun and group of monks praying before idols in Myanmar.jpg|thumb|Praying Buddhist monks in [[Shwedagon Pagoda]]]]

Although Hinduism is practised by 0.5% of the population, it was a major religion in Myanmar's past. Several strains of Hinduism existed alongside both Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism in the Mon and [[Pyu city-states|Pyu period]] in the first millennium,<ref>{{cite book |last=Aung-Thwin |first=Michael A. |title=The Mists of Rāmañña: The Legend that was Lower Burma |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |location=Honolulu |edition=illustrated |year=2005 |pages=31–34 |isbn=978-0-8248-2886-8}}</ref> and down to the [[Pagan Kingdom|Pagan period]] (9th to 13th centuries) when "[[Shaivism|Saivite]] and [[Vaishnavism|Vaishana]] elements enjoyed greater elite influence than they would later do."<ref>[[#Lieberman|Lieberman]], pp. 115–116</ref> [[Burmese folk religion]] is practised by many [[Bamar people|Bamars]] alongside Buddhism.

=== Health ===

The general state of [[health care]] in Myanmar is poor. The government spends anywhere from 0.5% to 3% of the country's GDP on health care, consistently ranking among the lowest in the world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ppionline.org/ppi_ci.cfm?knlgAreaID=108&subsecID=900003&contentID=254167 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427103224/http://www.ppionline.org/ppi_ci.cfm?knlgAreaID=108&subsecID=900003&contentID=254167 |archive-date=27 April 2011 |title=PPI: Almost Half of All World Health Spending is in the United States |date=17 January 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Anwar |first=Yasmin |title=Myanmar junta faulted for rampant diseases |url=http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2007/06/28_Myanmar.shtml |publisher=UC Berkeley News |date=28 June 2007}}{{dead link|date=September 2016}}</ref> Although [[health care]] is nominally free, in reality, patients have to pay for medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and hospitals. Public hospitals lack many of the basic facilities and equipment. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Myanmar is 240. This is compared with 219.3 in 2008 and 662 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 73 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality is 47. According to the report named "Preventable Fate", published by Doctors without Borders, 25,000 Burmese AIDS patients died in 2007, deaths that could largely have been prevented by [[antiretroviral therapy]] drugs and proper treatment.<ref name="autogenerated1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20090225081933/http://www.msf.org/source/countries/asia/myanmar/2008/PreventableFate/PreventableFatereport.pdf A preventable fate: The failure of ART scale-up in Myanmar]. [[Médecins Sans Frontières]]. November 2008</ref>

HIV/AIDS, recognised as a disease of concern by the [[Ministry of Health (Myanmar)|Burmese Ministry of Health]], is most prevalent among [[sex worker]]s and [[intravenous drug]] users. In 2005, the estimated adult [[HIV/AIDS in Myanmar|HIV prevalence rate in Myanmar]] was 1.3% (200,000–570,000 people), according to [[UNAIDS]], and early indicators of any progress against the HIV epidemic are inconsistent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/myanmar_statistics.html#25 |title=At a glance: Myanmar – statistics |access-date=9 January 2007 |work=UNICEF }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.unaids.org/UNA-docs/REPORT_ICAAP_01July05_en.pdf |title=A scaled-up response to AIDS in Asia and the Pacific |access-date=10 January 2007 |date=1 July 2005 |work=UNAIDS |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223010935/http://data.unaids.org/UNA-docs/report_icaap_01july05_en.pdf |archive-date=23 February 2007 }}</ref><ref name="06decUNAIDS">{{cite web|url=http://data.unaids.org/pub/EpiReport/2006/05-Asia_2006_EpiUpdate_eng.pdf |title=Asia |access-date=9 January 2007 |work=UNAIDS |date=December 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070116033206/http://data.unaids.org/pub/EpiReport/2006/05-Asia_2006_EpiUpdate_eng.pdf |archive-date=16 January 2007 }}</ref> However, the National AIDS Programme Myanmar found that 32% of sex workers and 43% of intravenous drug users in Myanmar have HIV.<ref name="06decUNAIDS" />

=== Education ===

[[File:Students, Hakha, Chin State, Myanmar.jpg|thumb|Students on their way to school, [[Kalaymyo]], [[Sagaing Region]], Myanmar]]

According to the [[UNESCO]] Institute of Statistics, Myanmar's official [[literacy rate]] as of 2000 was 90%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uis.unesco.org/TEMPLATE/html/Exceltables/education/Literacy_Regional_April2006.xls|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070625071529/http://www.uis.unesco.org/TEMPLATE/html/Exceltables/education/Literacy_Regional_April2006.xls|archive-date=25 June 2007|title=Adult (15+) Literacy Rates and Illiterate Population by Region and Gender for |access-date=13 July 2006 |date=April 2006 |format=XLS |publisher=UNESCO Institute of Statistics}}</ref> Historically, Myanmar has had high literacy rates. The educational system of Myanmar is operated by the government agency, the [[Ministry of Education (Myanmar)|Ministry of Education]]. The education system is based on the United Kingdom's system after nearly a century of British and Christian presences in Myanmar. Nearly all schools are government-operated, but there has been a increase in privately funded English language schools in the early 21st century. Schooling is compulsory until the end of elementary school, approximately about 9 years old, while the compulsory schooling age is 15 or 16 at international level.

There are 101 universities, 12 institutes, 9 degree colleges and 24 colleges in Myanmar, a total of 146 higher education institutions.<ref>Chronicle of National Development Comparison Between Period Preceding 1988 and after (up to 31 December 2006).</ref> There are 10 technical training schools, 23 nursing training schools, 1 sport academy and 20 midwifery schools. There are four international schools acknowledged by WASC and College Board—[[International School Yangon|The International School Yangon]], [[Myanmar International School]], [[Yangon International School]], and [[International School of Myanmar]] in Yangon.

=== Crime ===

Myanmar had a murder rate of 15.2 per 100,000 population with a total of 8,044 murders in 2012.<ref name=UNODC>{{cite web|url=https://www.unodc.org/gsh/en/index.html|title=UNODC: Global Study on Homicide|author=agt}}</ref> Factors influencing Myanmar's high murder rate include communal violence and armed conflict.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://investvine.com/asean-as-safe-as-we-think/|title=ASEAN: As safe as we think?|first=Justin|last=Calderon|work=Inside Investor|date=3 July 2013|access-date=7 July 2013}}</ref> Myanmar is one of the world's most corrupt nations. The 2012 [[Transparency International]] [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] ranked the country at number 171, out of 176 countries in total.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.trust.org/item/?map=myanmar-still-near-bottom-of-corruption-rankings-in-2012-despite-reforms/ |publisher=[[Thomson Reuters Foundation]] |title=Myanmar still near bottom of corruption rankings in 2012 despite reforms |date=5 December 2012 }}</ref> Myanmar is the world's second largest producer of [[opium]] after [[Opium production in Afghanistan|Afghanistan]], producing some 25% of the world's opium, and forms part of the [[Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)|Golden Triangle]]. The opium industry was a monopoly during colonial times and has since been illegally operated by corrupt officials in the Burmese military and rebel fighters,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-20150082 |title=UN report: Opium cultivation rising in Burma |publisher=BBC News |date=31 October 2012 |access-date=10 June 2013}}</ref> primarily as the basis for heroin manufacture. Myanmar is the largest producer of methamphetamines in the world, with the majority of ''[[Ya ba]]'' found in Thailand produced in Myanmar, particularly in the Golden Triangle and northeastern Shan State, which borders Thailand, Laos and China.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/investigation/279434/myanmar-reforms-mask-meteoric-rise-in-drug-trade|title=Myanmar's rising drug trade|last=Thornton|first=Phil|date=12 February 2012|work=Bangkok Post|access-date=19 February 2012}}</ref> Burmese-produced ''ya ba'' is typically trafficked to Thailand via Laos, before being transported through the northeastern Thai region of [[Isan]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/LG13Ae01.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100715054055/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/LG13Ae01.html|url-status=unfit|archive-date=15 July 2010|title=Holes in Thailand's drug fences|last=McCartan|first=Brian|date=13 July 2010|work=Asia Times|access-date=19 February 2012}}</ref>

== Culture ==

[[File:Burmese Ramayana dance.jpg|thumb|upright|Burmese [[Kinnara|Kinnayi Kinnaya]] dance]]

A diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Myanmar, with majority culture primarily Buddhist and [[Bamar people|Bamar]]. Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries, manifested in its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the local form of Theravada Buddhism. Considered the national epic of Myanmar, the ''[[Yama Zatdaw]]'', an adaptation of India's ''[[Ramayana]]'', has been influenced greatly by Thai, Mon, and Indian versions of the play.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.goldenlandpages.com/hotspots/rama/rama.htm |title=Ramayana in Myanmar's heart |access-date=13 July 2006 |date=13 September 2003 |publisher=Goldenland Pages |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060426233452/http://www.goldenlandpages.com/hotspots/rama/rama.htm |archive-date=26 April 2006}}</ref> Buddhism is practised along with [[nat (spirit)|nat worship]], which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats.<ref>{{cite book |last=Temple |first=R.C. |title=The Thirty-seven Nats-A Phase of Spirit-Worship prevailing in Burma |year=1906}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://myanmartravelinformation.com/mti-myanmar-religion/nats.htm |title=The Worshipping of Nats – The Special Festival of Mount Popa |publisher=Myanmar Travel Information |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623011500/http://myanmartravelinformation.com/mti-myanmar-religion/nats.htm

|archive-date=23 June 2006 |access-date=10 January 2012}}</ref>

[[File:Myanmar Traditional novitiation march.JPG|thumb|A Buddhist [[Shinbyu]] ceremony in [[Mandalay]].]]

In a traditional village, the monastery is the centre of cultural life. Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. A novitiation ceremony called [[shinbyu]] is the most important [[coming of age]] events for a boy, during which he enters the monastery for a short time.<ref name="kmc">{{cite book |author=Chit, Khin Myo |author-link=Khin Myo Chit |year=1980 |title=Flowers and Festivals Round the Burmese Year }}</ref> All male children in Buddhist families are encouraged to be a novice (beginner for Buddhism) before the age of twenty and to be a monk after the age of twenty. Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies ({{my|နားသ}}) at the same time.<ref name="kmc" /> Burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most important being the [[pagoda festival]].<ref name="Myam-ma">{{cite book |author=Tsaya |year=1886 |title=Myam-ma, the home of the Myanmarn |publisher=Thacker, Spink and Co. |location=Calcutta |pages=36–37}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Yoe, Shway |year=1882|title=The Myanmarn – His Life and Notions |publisher=Norton Library 1963 |location=New York |pages=211–216, 317–319}}</ref> Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace.

[[File:Rakhine Thingyan 2011.jpeg|thumb|An [[Rakhine people|Arakan]] (Rakhine) girl pours water at revellers during the Burmese New Year [[Thingyan]] Water Festival in Yangon.]]

British colonial rule introduced Western elements of culture to Myanmar. Myanmar's education system is modelled after that of the United Kingdom. Colonial architectural influences are most evident in major cities such as Yangon.<ref>{{cite news |first=Steven |last=Martin |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3578993.stm |title=Burma maintains bygone buildings |publisher=BBC News|date=March 2004 |access-date=9 July 2006 }}</ref> Many ethnic minorities, particularly the Karen in the southeast and the Kachin and Chin who populate the north and northeast, practice Christianity.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/TheSilkenEast |title=The Silken East – A Record of Life and Travel in Burma |author=Scott O'Connor |year=1904 |publisher=Kiscadale |location=Scotland |page=[https://archive.org/details/TheSilkenEast/page/n283 32]}}</ref> According to ''[[The World Factbook]]'', the Burman population is 68% and the ethnic groups constitute 32%. In contrast, the exiled leaders and organisations claim the country is 40% ethnic.

=== Cuisine ===

[[Burmese cuisine]] is characterised by extensive use of fish products such as [[fish sauce]], [[ngapi]] (fermented seafood) and dried prawn. [[Mohinga]] is the traditional breakfast dish and is Myanmar's national dish. Seafood is a common ingredient in coastal cities, while meat and poultry are more commonly used in landlocked cities like Mandalay. Freshwater fish and shrimp have been incorporated into inland cooking as a primary source of protein and are used in a variety of ways, fresh, salted whole or filleted, salted and dried, made into a salty paste, or fermented sour and pressed. Burmese cuisine also includes a variety of salads (''[[a thoke]]''), centred on one major ingredient, ranging from starches like rice, wheat and rice noodles, glass noodles and vermicelli, to potato, ginger, tomato, [[kaffir lime]], long bean, and [[lahpet]] (pickled tea leaves).

=== Sport ===

[[File:Chinlone Burma cropped.jpg|right|thumb|Men playing chinlone]]

The [[Lethwei]], [[Bando]], [[Banshay]], and [[Pongyi thaing]] martial arts and [[chinlone]] are traditional sports in Myanmar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Myanmar/sub5_5e/entry-3098.html|title=SPORTS IN MYANMAR: SOCCER, OLYMPICS AND TRADITIONAL SPORTS|last=Hays|first=Jeffrey|website=Facts and Details|access-date=5 June 2017}}</ref> Football is played all over the country, even in villages, and its [[Myanmar national football team|national team]] is ruled by the [[Myanmar Football Federation]]. The [[2013 Southeast Asian Games]] took place in Naypyidaw, Yangon, Mandalay and [[Ngwesaung Beach]] in December representing the third occasion that the event has been staged in Myanmar. Myanmar previously hosted the games in [[1961 Southeast Asian Peninsular Games|1961]] and [[1969 Southeast Asian Peninsular Games|1969]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.betweenonline.com/2011/12/28/myanmar-prepares-for-the-2013-southeast-asian-games/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120723053542/http://www.betweenonline.com/2011/12/28/myanmar-prepares-for-the-2013-southeast-asian-games/|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 July 2012|title=Myanmar prepares for the 2013 Southeast Asian Games|access-date=5 January 2012}}</ref>

=== Art ===

Burmese traditional art concepts are popular and respected by the Burmese people and people from abroad. Burmese contemporary art has developed quite rapidly on its own terms. Artists born after the 1980s have had greater chances of art practice outside the country.

One of the first to study western art was [[Ba Nyan]]. Together with [[Ngwe Gaing]] and a handful of other artists, they were the pioneers of western painting style. Later on most young children learned the concepts from them. Some well known contemporary artists are [[Lun Gywe]], Aung Kyaw Htet, [[MPP Yei Myint]], Myint Swe, Min Wai Aung, [[Aung Myint]], [[Kin Maung Yin]], [[Po Po]] and [[Zaw Zaw Aung]].

=== Media and communications ===

Because of Myanmar's political climate, there are not many media companies in relation to the country's population. Some are privately owned. All programming must meet with the approval of the censorship board. The Burmese government announced on 20 August 2012 that it would stop censoring media before publication. Following the announcement, newspapers and other outlets no longer required approved by state censors; however, journalists in the country can still face consequences for what they write and say.<ref>{{cite news|title=Burma Abolishes Censorship|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/cheats/2012/08/20/burma-abolishes-censorship.html |work=The Daily Beast|access-date=20 August 2012}}</ref> In April 2013, international media reports were published to relay the enactment of the media liberalisation reforms that we announced in August 2012. For the first time in numerous decades, the publication of privately owned newspapers commenced in the country.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sukri |first=Azhar |title=Myanmar shows new signs of press freedom |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/video/asia/2013/04/201341115227284132.html |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=1 April 2013 |access-date=24 April 2013}}</ref>

==== Internet ====

[[File:Kayan women Burma 1.jpg|thumb|[[Kayan people (Burma)|Kayan]] women in a village near [[Inle Lake]], 2010]]

Internet use is estimated to be relatively low compared to other countries.<ref name="Calderaro">{{cite journal |last1=Calderaro |first1=Andrea |title=Internet Governance Capacity Building in Post-Authoritarian Contexts. Telecom Reform and Human Rights in Myanmar |journal=SSRN |date=1 May 2015 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2686095|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/90938/1/SSRN-id2686095-2.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.opentechfund.org/files/reports/otf_myanmar_access_openness_public.pdf |title=Internet Access and Openness: Myanmar 2012 |access-date=18 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140414221004/https://www.opentechfund.org/files/reports/otf_myanmar_access_openness_public.pdf |archive-date=14 April 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Myanmar's internet used to be subject to censorship, and authorities viewed e-mails and posts on Internet blogs until 2012 when the government removed media censorship. During the strict censorship days, activity at internet cafes was regulated, and one blogger named [[Zarganar]] was sentenced to prison for publishing a video of destruction caused by [[Cyclone Nargis]] in 2008; Zarganar was released in October 2011.

In regards to communications infrastructure, Myanmar is the last ranked Asian country in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. With 139 countries reported on, Myanmar ranked number 133 overall in the 2016 NRI ranking.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://reports.weforum.org/global-information-technology-report-2016/networked-readiness-index/?doing_wp_cron=1577930341.6168849468231201171875 | title=NRI Overall Ranking 2016 | publisher=World Economic Forum | access-date=1 January 2020}}</ref>

=== Film ===

Myanmar's first film was a documentary of the funeral of Tun Shein—a leading politician of the 1910s, who campaigned for Burmese independence in London. The first Burmese [[silent film]] ''Myitta Ne Thuya'' (''[[Love and Liquor]]'') in 1920 which proved a major success, despite its poor quality due to a fixed camera position and inadequate film accessories. During the 1920s and 1930s, many Burmese-owned film companies made and produced several films. The first Burmese [[sound film]] was produced in 1932 in [[Bombay]], India with the title Ngwe Pay Lo Ma Ya (Money Can't Buy It). After World War II, Burmese cinema continued to address political themes. Many of the films produced in the early Cold War era had a strong propaganda element to them.

In the era that followed the political events of 1988, the film industry has been increasingly controlled by the government. Film stars who had been involved in the political activities were banned from appearing in films. The government issues strict rules on censorship and largely determines who produces films, as well as who gets academy awards.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Zaw, Aung |title=Celluloid Disillusions|url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/database/2004/vol12.3/cover.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050213182520/http://www.irrawaddy.org/database/2004/vol12.3/cover.html|archive-date=13 February 2005|journal=Irrawaddy|volume= 12|issue=3|date=March 2004}}</ref>

Over the years, the movie industry has also shifted to producing many lower-budget [[direct-to-video]] films. Most of the movies produced nowadays are [[Comedy film|comedies]].<ref>Kyi Soe Tun quoted in the Bangkok Post, 11 August 2006</ref> In 2008, only 12 films worthy of being considered for an [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] were made, although at least 800 VCDs were produced.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120328075748/http://irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=14937 Through the Director's Lens]. ''Irrawaddy''. 16 January 2009</ref> Myanmar is the primary subject of a 2007 graphic novel titled ''Chroniques Birmanes'' by [[Quebec City|Québécois]] author and animator, [[Guy Delisle]]. The graphic novel was translated into English under the title ''[[Burma Chronicles]]'' in 2008. In 2009, a documentary about Burmese [[videojournalist]]s called ''[[Burma VJ]]'' was released.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://burmavjmovie.com/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521155756/http://burmavjmovie.com/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 May 2009 |title=Burma VJ – Academy Award Nominee – Best Documentary Feature |publisher=Burmavjmovie.com |access-date=17 April 2010 }}</ref> This film was nominated for [[Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature|Best Documentary Feature]] at the [[82nd Academy Awards|2010 Academy Awards]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dannyfisher.org/2010/02/02/burma-vj-nominated-for-a-2010-academy-award-for-best-documentary-feature/ |title=Burma VJ Nominated for the 2010 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature, Rev. Danny Fisher |publisher=Dannyfisher.org |date=2 February 2010 |access-date=17 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429004750/http://dannyfisher.org/2010/02/02/burma-vj-nominated-for-a-2010-academy-award-for-best-documentary-feature/ |archive-date=29 April 2011 }}</ref> ''[[The Lady (2011 film)|The Lady]]'' had its world premiere on 12 September 2011 at the [[36th Toronto International Film Festival]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiewire.com/2011/09/tiff-list-2011-a-complete-guide-to-the-toronto-international-film-festival-52378/|title=TIFF List 2011: A Complete Guide To The Toronto International Film Festival|last1=Knegt|first1=Peter|date=12 September 2011|website=IndieWire|language=en|access-date=31 December 2018}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Index of Myanmar-related articles]]

* [[Outline of Myanmar]]

* [[Censorship in Myanmar]]

== Notes ==

== References ==

== Bibliography ==

* Cameron, Ewan. "The State of Myanmar", ''History Today'', May 2020, vol. 70, issue 4, pp. 90–93.

{{cite book |last=Lieberman |first=Victor B. |title=Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-80496-7 |ref=Lieberman}}

{{cite book |last=Myint-U |first=Thant |title=The River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma |publisher=[[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-374-16342-6 |ref=Myint-U}}

{{cite book |last=Charney |first=Michael W. |title=History of Modern Burma |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999}}

{{cite book |last=Kemp |first=Hans |title=[Burmese Light, Impressions of the Golden Land] |publisher=Visionary World |edition=illustrated with text by Tom Vater |year=2013 |isbn=978-9628563708}}

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150518085846/http://www.networkmyanmar.org/images/stories/PDF13/aye%20chan%20bwb.pdf "Burma's Western Border as Reported by the Diplomatic Correspondence(1947–1975)"] by Aye Chan

== External links ==

'''Government'''

* [http://www.president-office.gov.mm/en/ Republic of the Union of Myanmar – President's Office]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190119082002/https://myanmar.gov.mm/ Myanmar National Portal]

* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/BM.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] from the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA)

'''General information'''

* [http://mingalapar.com/ General information about Myanmar]

* [http://myanma.com/ Burma Myanmar search Engine]

* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burma/ Burma]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091205161122/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/myanmar.htm Burma] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''

{{curlie|Regional/Asia/Myanmar}}

* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-12990563 Burma profile] from [[BBC News]]

* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/400119/Myanmar Myanmar] at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''

{{OSM relation|50371}}

{{wikiatlas|Myanmar}}

* [https://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/eyes-of-the-storm/turning-points-in-burmese-history/5363/ Interactive timeline of turning points in Burmese history]

* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=MM Key Development Forecasts for Myanmar] from [[International Futures]]

* [http://www.burmalibrary.org/ Online Burma/Myanmar Library: Classified and annotated links to more than 17,000 full-text documents on Burma/Myanmar]

'''Economy'''

* Taipei American Chamber of Commerce; Topics Magazine, Analysis, November 2012. [http://www.amcham.com.tw/content/view/3715/538/ Myanmar: Southeast Asia's Last Frontier for Investment], By David DuByne

'''Agriculture'''

* Myanmar Business Today; Print Edition, 27 February 2014. [http://www.oilseedcrops.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Myanmar-Business-Today-Feb-27-March-5-2014-Edition-A-Roadmap-to-Building-Myanmar-into-the-Food-Basket-of-Asia_David-DuByne-.pdf A Roadmap to Building Myanmar into the Food Basket of Asia], by David DuByne & Hishamuddin Koh

* Myanmar Business Today; Print Edition, 19 June 2014. [http://www.oilseedcrops.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Myanmars-Institutional-Infrastructure-Constraints-and-how-to-fill-the-Gaps-Myanmar-Business-Today-June-19_2014.pdf Myanmar's Institutional Infrastructure Constraints and How to Fill the Gaps], by David DuByne & Hishamuddin Koh

'''Trade'''

* [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/MMR/Year/2010/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Myanmar]

'''Environment'''

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170305113754/http://marine.myanmarbiodiversity.org/ Myanmar Marine Biodiversity Atlas Online] from the [[Wildlife Conservation Society]] and [[University of Exeter]]

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