User:Soulscanner/Sandbox/CanHist

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Main articles: History of Canada, Timeline of Canadian history, and Territorial evolution of Canada

Aboriginal peoples and European Colonization

Main articles: Aboriginal peoples in Canada, New France, Canada under British Imperial control, and Former colonies and territories in Canada
The fur trade was Canada's most important industry until the 1800s

Aboriginal peoples in Canada include the First Nations,[1] Inuit,[2] and Métis.[3] Although archaeological[4] and indigenous genetic studies[5] support a human presence in the northern Yukon from 26,500 years ago and southern Ontario from 9,500 years ago[6][7][8][9], aboriginal traditions hold that they have occupied their territories since the beginning of creation.[10] The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal civilizations included permanent settlements,[11] agriculture,[12] civic and ceremonial architecture,[13] complex societal hierarchies and trading networks.[14] The population is estimated to have been between 200,000[15] and two million in the late 15th century,[16] with a currently accepted figure of 500,000.[17]

Europeans first arrived when Norse sailors settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland around 1000;[18][19] subsequently, no known European exploration occurred until Italian seafarer Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot) explored Canada's Atlantic coast for England in 1497.[20] Between 1498 and 1521, various Portuguese and Basque mariners reconoittered eastern Canada and established fishing posts in the region.[21][22] In 1534 Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Saint Lawrence River for France.[23]

French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608.[24] Among French colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while French fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana. A Métis culture originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and Inuit married European fur traders.[25] The French and Iroquois Wars broke out over control of the North American fur trade.[26] Repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza, measles and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity) resulted in a forty to eighty percent aboriginal population decrease.[15] The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during the colonization period.[27]

Benjamin West's The Death of General Wolfe (1771) dramatizes Wolfe's death during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec in 1759; the battle was part of the Seven Years' War

The English established fishing outposts in Newfoundland around 1610 and established the Thirteen Colonies to the south.[28] A series of four Intercolonial Wars erupted between 1689 and 1763.[29] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); the Treaty of Paris (1763) ceded Canada and most of New France to Britain after the Seven Years' War.[30]

The Royal Proclamation (1763) carved the Province of Quebec out of New France and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[31] St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[32] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British passed the Quebec Act of 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there. This angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies and helped to fuel the American Revolution.[31]

The Treaty of Paris (1783) recognized American independence and ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. Around 50,000 United Empire Loyalists fled the United States to Canada.[33] New Brunswick was split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province into French-speaking Lower Canada (later the province of Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected Legislative Assembly.[34]

Robert Harris's Fathers of Confederation,[35] an amalgamation of the Charlottetown and Quebec conferences

Canada (Upper and Lower) was the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the British Empire. Following the war, large-scale immigration to Canada from Britain and Ireland began in 1815.[36] From 1825 to 1846, 626,628 European immigrants landed at Canadian ports.[37] Between one-quarter and one-third of all Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891 died of infectious diseases.[15] The timber industry surpassed the fur trade in economic importance in the early 19th century.

The desire for responsible government resulted in the aborted Rebellions of 1837. The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into British culture.[31] The Act of Union 1840 merged The Canadas into a united Province of Canada. Responsible government was established for all British North American provinces by 1849.[38] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).[39] Canada launched a series of exploratory expeditions to claim Rupert's Land and the Arctic region.

Confederation and expansion

Main articles: Canadian Confederation and Territorial evolution of Canada
When Canada was formed in 1867 its provinces were a relatively narrow strip in the southeast, with vast territories in the interior. It grew by adding British Columbia in 1871, P.E.I. in 1873, the British Arctic Islands in 1880, and Newfoundland in 1949, Its provinces grew both in size and number at the expense of its territories.
An animated map, exhibiting the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories since Confederation

Following several constitutional conferences, the Constitution Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation, creating "one Dominion under the name of Canada" on July 1, 1867, with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[40][41][42] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.[43] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had united in 1866) and the colony of Prince Edward Island joined the Confederation in 1871 and 1873, respectively.[44] Prime Minister John A. Macdonald's Conservative government established a national policy of tariffs to protect nascent Canadian manufacturing industries.[45]

To open the West, the government sponsored construction of three trans-continental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opened the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory.[46][47] In 1898, after the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, the Canadian government created the Yukon Territory. Under Liberal Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, continental European immigrants settled the prairies, and Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[44]

Early 20th century

Main article: Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years
A group of soldiers with guns march on uneven ground past a wrecked tank and the body of another soldier
Canadian soldiers at the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the Confederation Act, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I.[48] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps.[48] The Corps played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major battles of the war.[48] Out of approximately 625,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 173,000 were wounded.[49] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when conservative Prime Minister Robert Borden brought in compulsory military service over the objection of French-speaking Quebecers.[48] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain and,[48] in 1931, the Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada's independence.[50]

The Great Depression brought economic hardship all over Canada. In response, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Alberta and Saskatchewan enacted many measures of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) into the 1940s and 1950s.[51] Canada declared war on Germany independently during World War II under Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, three days after Britain. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939.[48]

Canadian troops played important roles in the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid in France, the Allied invasion of Italy, the D-Day landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.[48] Canada provided asylum and protection for the monarchy of the Netherlands while that country was occupied, and is credited by the country for leadership and major contribution to its liberation from Nazi Germany.[52] The Canadian economy boomed as industry manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.[48] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec, Canada finished the war with one of the largest armed forces in the world and the second-wealthiest economy.[53][54]

Modern times

Main articles: History of Canada (1945–1960), (1960–1981), (1982–1992), and (1992–present)
At Rideau Hall, Governor General the Viscount Alexander of Tunis (centre) receives for his signature the bill finalizing the union of Newfoundland and Canada, March 31, 1949

Newfoundland (now Newfoundland and Labrador) joined Canada in 1949[55]. Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the current Maple Leaf Flag in 1965,[56] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,[57] and official multiculturalism in 1971.[58] There was also the founding of socially democratic programmes, such as universal health care, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.[59] Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the 1982 patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[60] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[61]

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960's, giving birth to a modern nationalist movement. The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis in 1970.[62] The sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976 and organized an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980[62]. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990. This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.[63][64] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of just 50.6% to 49.4%.[65] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled that unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.[65]

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;[66] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;[67] and the Oka Crisis in 1990,[68] the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Aboriginal groups.[69] Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a US-led coalition force, and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the late 1990s.[70] It sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, but declined to send forces to Iraq when the US invaded in 2003.[71]

  1. ^ "Civilization.ca-Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage-Culture". Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation. Government of Canada. May 12, 2006. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
  2. ^ "Inuit Circumpolar Council (Canada)-ICC Charter". Inuit Circumpolar Council > ICC Charter and By-laws > ICC Charter. 2007. Archived from the original on 2008-02-26. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
  3. ^ "In the Kawaskimhon Aboriginal Moot Court Factum of the Federal Crown Canada" (PDF). Faculty of Law. University of Manitoba. 2007. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
  4. ^ Cinq-Mars, J (2001). "On the significance of modified mammoth bones from eastern Beringia" (PDF). The World of Elephants – International Congress, Rome. Retrieved 2010-02-25.
  5. ^ Bortolini, Maria-Catira; Salzano, Francisco M.; Thomas, Mark G.; Stuart, Steven; Nasanen, Selja P.K.; Bau, Claiton H.D.; Hutz, Mara H.; Layrisse, Zulay; Petzl-Erler, Maria L.; Tsuneto, Luiza T.; Hill, Kim; Hurtado, Ana M.; Castro-De-Guerra, Dinorah; Torres, Maria M.; Groot, Helena; Michalski, Roman; Nymadawa, Pagbajabyn; Bedoya, Gabriel; Bradman, Neil; Labuda, Damian; Ruiz-Linares, Andres (2003). "Y-Chromosome Evidence for Differing Ancient Demographic Histories in the Americas" (PDF). The American Journal of Human Genetics. 73 (3). University College London 73:524–539: 524–539. doi:10.1086/377588. PMC 1180678. PMID 12900798. Retrieved 2010-01-22.
  6. ^ Wright, JV (2001-09-27). "A History of the Native People of Canada: Early and Middle Archaic Complexes". Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation. Retrieved 2009-10-19.
  7. ^ Griebel, Ron. "The Bluefish Caves". Minnesota State University. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
  8. ^ "Beringia: humans were here" (re-published online by Canada.com). Gazette (Montreal). CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc. May 17, 2008. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
  9. ^ Cinq-Mars, Jacques (2001). "Significance of the Bluefish Caves in Beringian Prehistory". Canadian Museum of Civilization. p. 2. Retrieved 2010-04-15.
  10. ^ Dickason, Olive, ed. (1995). The Native Imprint: The Contribution of First Peoples to Canada's Character. Vol. 1. Athabasca: Athabasca University Educational Enterprises. pp. 114–117.
  11. ^ Darnell, Regna (2001). Invisible genealogies: a history of Americanist anthropology. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. p. 338. ISBN 0803217102. Retrieved 2010-10-03.
  12. ^ Cameron, Rondo E (1993). A concise economic history of the world: from Paleolithic times to the present. Oxford University Press. p. 92. ISBN 0195074459. Retrieved 2010-10-03.
  13. ^ "Architectural History: Early First Nations". The Canadian Encyclopedia (Historica-Dominion). 2010. Retrieved 2010-10-03.
  14. ^ Macklem, Patrick (2001). Indigenous difference and the Constitution of Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 170. ISBN 0802041957. Retrieved 2010-10-03.
  15. ^ a b c Wilson, Donna M (2008). Dying and Death in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 25–27. ISBN 9781551118734. Retrieved 2010-06-20. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ Thornton, Russell (2000). "Population history of Native North Americans". In Michael R. Haines, Richard Hall Steckel (ed.). A population history of North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 0521496667.
  17. ^ "Handbook of North American Indians: Indians in contemporary society". Garrick Alan Bailey (2008). Government Printing Office. p.285. ISBN 0160803888
  18. ^ Pálsson, Hermann (1965). The Vinland sagas: the Norse discovery of America (Digitized online by Google books). Penguin Classics. p. 28. ISBN 0140441549. Retrieved 2010-04-15.
  19. ^ Reeves, Arthur Middleton (2009). The Norse Discovery of America (Digitized online by Google books). BiblioLife. p. 82. ISBN 9780559054006. Retrieved 2010-04-15.
  20. ^ "John Cabot's voyage of 1498". Memorial University of Newfoundland (Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage). 2000. Retrieved 2010-04-12.
  21. ^ RENÉ BÉLANGER. "Basques". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Foundation. Retrieved 2010-11-24.
  22. ^ "The Portuguese Explorers". Memorial University of Newfoundland. 2004. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
  23. ^ Morton, Desmond (2001). A Short History of Canada (6th ed.). Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. pp. 9–17. ISBN 0-7710-6509-4.
  24. ^ Morton, Desmond (2001) (pp. 17–19)
  25. ^ "What to Search: Topics-Canadian Genealogy Centre-Library and Archives Canada". Ethno-Cultural and Aboriginal Groups. Government of Canada. 2009-05-27. Retrieved 2009-10-02.
  26. ^ Morton, Desmond (2001) (p. 33)
  27. ^ "Innu Culture 3. Innu-Inuit 'Warfare'". 1999, Adrian Tanner Department of Anthropology-Memorial University of Newfoundland. Retrieved 2009-10-05.
  28. ^ Smith, Philip (April 1987). "Transhuman Europeans Overseas: The Newfoundland Case". Current Anthropology. 28 (2). University of Chicago Press: 241–250. doi:10.1086/203526.
  29. ^ Morton, Desmond (2001) (pp. 89–104)
  30. ^ Sarkonak, Ralph (1983). "A Brief Chronology of French Canada, 1534–1982". Yale French Studies (65). Yale University Press: 275–282. doi:10.2307/2930052. JSTOR 2930052.
  31. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference buckner was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  32. ^ Bumsted, JM (1987). Land, settlement, and politics on eighteenth-century Prince Edward Island. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 30. ISBN 0773505660.
  33. ^ Moore, Christopher (1994). The Loyalist: Revolution Exile Settlement. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-6093-9.
  34. ^ McNairn, Jeffrey L (2000). The capacity to judge. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 24. ISBN 0802043607.
  35. ^ This is a photograph taken in 1885 of the now-destroyed 1884 painting.
  36. ^ Haines, Michael (2000). A population history of North America. Cambridge University Press. p. 380. ISBN 9780521496667. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  37. ^ "Immigration History of Canada". Marianopolis College. 2004. Retrieved 2008-01-26.
  38. ^ Romney, Paul (Spring 1989). "From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture". Law and History Review. 7 (1). University of Illinois Press: 128. doi:10.2307/743779. JSTOR 743779.
  39. ^ Evenden, Leonard J (1992). "The Pacific Coast Borderland and Frontier". In Donald G. Janelle (ed.). Geographical snapshots of North America. Guilford Press. p. 52. ISBN 0898620309. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  40. ^ "Territorial evolution" (html/PDF). Atlas of Canada. Natural Resources Canada. Retrieved 2007-10-09.
  41. ^ "Canada: History" (html/PDF). Country Profiles. Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved 2007-10-09.
  42. ^ Bothwell, Robert (1996). History of Canada Since 1867. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press. pp. 207–310. ISBN 0-87013-399-3.
  43. ^ Bumsted, JM (1996). The Red River Rebellion. Winnipeg: Watson & Dwyer. ISBN 0920486231.
  44. ^ a b "Building a nation". The Canadian Atlas. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
  45. ^ Bothwell, Robert (1996) (p. 31).
  46. ^ "Sir John A. Macdonald". Library and Archives Canada. 2008. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
  47. ^ Cook, Terry (2000). "The Canadian West: An Archival Odyssey through the Records of the Department of the Interior". The Archivist. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
  48. ^ a b c d e f g h Morton, Desmond (1999). A military history of Canada (4th ed.). Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. pp. 130–158, 173, 203–233. ISBN 0771065140.
  49. ^ Haglund, David G (1999). Security, strategy and the global economics of defence production. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 12. ISBN 0889118752. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  50. ^ Dellinger, Walter (Autumn 1982). "The Amending Process in Canada and the United States: A Comparative Perspective". Law & Contemporary Problems. 45 (4). Duke Law School: 291. doi:10.2307/1191553. JSTOR 1191553.
  51. ^ Young, Walter (1983). "Canada: The Social Democracy of Provincial Government in a Federal System". In Peter Davis (ed.). Social Democracy in the South Pacific. Vol. 2. Auckland, New Zealand: Ross. pp. 48–58. ISBN 0908636350.
  52. ^ Goddard, Lance (2005). Canada and the Liberation of the Netherlands. Dundurn Press Ltd. pp. 225–232. ISBN 1550025473.
  53. ^ Stacey, CP (1948). History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War. Vol. 1. Queen's Printer. pp. 324–327.
  54. ^ Sherwood, George (2006). Legends in their time. Natural Heritage Books. p. 162. ISBN 1897045107. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  55. ^ W.F. Summers. "Newfoundland and Labrador". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Foundation. Retrieved 2010-11-24.
  56. ^ Mackey, Eva (2002). The house of difference: cultural politics and national identity in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 57. ISBN 0802084818.
  57. ^ Esman, Milton J (Summer 1982). "The Politics of Official Bilingualism in Canada". Political Science Quarterly. 97 (2). The Academy of Political Science: 233–253. doi:10.2307/2149477. JSTOR 2149477.
  58. ^ Esses, Victoria M (July 1996). "Multiculturalism in Canada: Context and current status". Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science. 28 (3). American Psychological Association: 145–152. doi:10.1037/h0084934. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  59. ^ Sarrouh, Elissar (2002-01-22). "Social Policies in Canada: A Model for Development" (PDF). Social Policy Series, No. 1. United Nations. pp. 14–16, 22–37. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
  60. ^ Bickerton, James; Gagnon, Alain, eds. (2004). Canadian Politics (4th ed.). Orchard Park, NY: Broadview Press. pp. 250–254, 344–347. ISBN 1-55111-595-6.
  61. ^ Légaré, André (2008). "Canada's Experiment with Aboriginal Self-Determination in Nunavut: From Vision to Illusion". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 15 (2–3). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers: 335–367. doi:10.1163/157181108X332659.
  62. ^ a b Clift, Dominique (1982). Quebec nationalism in crisis (reissued ed.). McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 28–36, 96–99, 106–107. ISBN 0773503838.
  63. ^ Leblanc, Daniel (Aug 13, 2010). "A brief history of the Bloc Québécois". Globe and Mail. Retrieved 2010-25-11. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  64. ^ Betz, Hans-Georg; Immerfall, Stefan (1998). The new politics of the Right: neo-Populist parties and movements in ... St. Martinʼs Press. p. 173. ISBN 0312211341. Retrieved 2010-25-11. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  65. ^ a b Dickinson, John Alexander (2003). A Short History of Quebec (3rd ed.). Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 357–360. ISBN 0-7735-2450-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  66. ^ "Commission of Inquiry into the Investigation of the Bombing of Air India Flight 182". Canadian government. Archived from the original on 2008-06-22. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
  67. ^ Sourour, Teresa K (1991). "Report of Coroner's Investigation" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-06-07.
  68. ^ "The Oka Crisis" (Digital Archives). Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 2000. Retrieved 2010-06-07.
  69. ^ Roach, Kent (2003). September 11: consequences for Canada. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 15, 59–61, 194.
  70. ^ "Canada and Multilateral Operations in Support of Peace and Stability". National Defence and the Canadian Forces. 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-07.
  71. ^ Jockel, Joseph T (2008). "Canada and the war in Afghanistan: NATO's odd man out steps forward". Journal of Transatlantic Studies. 6 (1). Routledge: 100–115. doi:10.1080/14794010801917212. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Soulscanner/Sandbox/CanHist&oldid=1023682981"