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1871 Kabyle revolt

The most serious native insurrection since the time of Abd al-Qadir was the 1871 Mokrani Revolt in the Kabylia, which spread through much of Algeria. By April 1871, 250 tribes had risen, or nearly a third of Algeria's population.[1] The Kabyle uprising, which erupted in response to prolonged famine and the colony's disparate treatment of various ethnic groups, resulted in the trial of the surviving commanders in Constantine in 1873, following the French repressions.[2] Moreover, major importance is assigned to the effect that the Crémieux Decree in 1870 had on the population.

[3]

The revolt was led by Cheikh Mokrani, head of the Kalâa of Ait Abbas, originally allied with the French state. One important aspect that contributed to the reasons of the revolt was the widespread perception among Kabyle leaders of a loss of autonomy in decision-making, as well as among the ǧamāʿa, Kabyle village assemblies.[4] This was also the case with the loss of authority that the Kalâa of Ait Abbas was confontring. Moreover, the Paris case of the Commune also probably played a part in demonstrating a possibility to fight the French administration, providing a viable way in endorsing the revolts.[5] The final trigger that iniziatated such a great movement, however, was the mutiny in 1871 of a Spahi, after it refused to obey French commands. [6]Around 150.000 Kabyles revolted, bringing warfare around the whole region, reaching almost the capital. Moreover, the majority of these rebels were not properly armed and trained, but a chaotic mass of peasants fighting for their freedom. However, the initial victories began to fade after the deployment of several French units which defeated the insurrection, especially with the final capture of Cheick Mokrani’s brother. [7][8] A number of dissidents was also brought to New Caledonia, where a large Algerian community, known as Algerians of the Pacific, still exists.[9]

Main article: Mokrani Revolt
See also: Battle of the Col des Beni Aïcha and Battle of Alma (Algeria)

Conquest of the Sahara

The French expedition to conquer the Saharan lands began in March 1844 at Biskra, a strategic location near Costantine in the Zibra region, with Louis-Philippe, due d'Aumale, a twenty-two-year-old general leading the troops. The necessity of arriving at Costantine by a different route, following the firm and successful resistance of the amir Abdel Kader and the bey of Costantine Haji Ahmed, led to the decision to assault that specific area. In truth, the Sahara's dry environment and non-strategic location, at least for the first French colonial intentions, were not worth the army's time and effort. The French, on the other hand, were able to maintain a successful policy in the Sahara, which tried to make the conquest as bloodless as possible by forming partnerships with specific tribes. In truth, not all local leaders supported Abdel Kader's colonial resistance efforts, with partnerships between French officials and certain local leaders serving as one of the biggest roadblocks. Promises of future recognition for Ahmed ben Salem, a tribe commander who put up resistance to Kader's plans in the Sahara Desert, for example, made the French-hostile resistance in the towns, first, much more difficult, and, second, produced a negative impression on the local population.[10][11][12] Following this, the French army was able to control the many revolts, both by secret alliances and the use of power an coercion and powere in specific cases.

In 1881, the Algerian coast was completely at the hand of the French government. Moreover, the past clashes in the Sahara and the difficulties encountered had made any future possibilities of a final annexation of the whole Sahara region scarce. Nevertheless, the rivalry with the British conquests and the death of Paul Flatters, a French Lieutanant-Colonel, by the Tuareg triggered the start of the final French expedition. In 1902, a new French expedition returned, entered Hoggar Mountains and defeated Ahaggar Tuareg in the battle of Tit.The conquest of the Saharan lands in Algeria finished in 1903 when France conquered the kingdom of Kel Ahaggar. Noticeable, the French policies in Sahara focused on the already well-know stategy of "divide and rule"[13] and on attacking the enemy from multiple sides, In fact, even if Tuareg groups were poorly armed, their knowledge of the environment and resistance to the climate conditions made them dangerous enemies. Furthemore, the Sahara expedition was not seen by everyone as a strict necessity for the French state, both because of its numerous difficulties in the strategic plans that were proposed and because of the lack of certainty in its development.[14]


Cultural Imperialism in The Conquest of Algeria

The interaction between the Kabyle communities and the French colonizers brought with the idea of manufacturing a new type of relationship that could have legitimized the French conquest of Algeria by promoting the belief that these Kabyle were different from the rest of the Algerians. This idea stemmed from cultural differences between the communities, such as the monogamy between the Kabyle.  Hence, from that moment on, there has been a relevant presence of missionaries to bring faith, but more importantly, the education and cultural system of France in Algeria, as happened with the Alliance Israelite Universelle for the Jews community. In fact, from the 1850s, along with the Cremieux Decree, there has been a mass involvement of France regarding the type of education that Jews and Kabyle had to receive, in order to create people loyal to France, but also acting and behaving like French.[15] [16][17]



Bibliography

  • Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33767-0.
  • Greenhalgh, Michael (2014). The Military and Colonial Destruction of the Roman Landscape of North Africa, 1830–1900. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-27163-0.
  • Priestley, Herbert Ingram (1966). France Overseas: a Study of Modern Imperialism. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-1024-5.
  • Ruedy, John Douglas (2005). Modern Algeria: The Origins and Development of a Nation (2nd ed.). Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21782-0.
  • Tucker, Spencer C. (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-672-5.
  • Wagner, Moritz (1854). The Tricolor on the Atlas: or, Algeria and the French conquest. Translated by Pulszky, Francis. London: T. Nelson and Sons.
  1. ^ Bernard Droz, « Insurrection de 1871: la révolte de Mokrani », dans Jeannine Verdès-Leroux (dir.), L'Algérie et la France, Paris, Robert Laffont 2009, pp. 474–475 ISBN 978-2-221-10946-5
  2. ^ Joly, Vincent (2014-02-01), "Les généraux d'Afrique et la répression des troubles révolutionnaires de 1848", Histoire de l'Algérie à la période coloniale, La Découverte, pp. 127–130, retrieved 2022-04-13
  3. ^ Katz, Ethan B. "Shifting Hierarchies of Exclusion: Colonialism, Anti‐Semitism, and Islamophobia in European History." CrossCurrents 65, no. 3 (2015): 357-370.
  4. ^ L'Algérie et la France. Jeannine Verdès-Leroux, Normandie roto impr.). Paris: R. Laffont. 2009. ISBN 978-2-221-10946-5. OCLC 470565360.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  5. ^ Willard, Claude (2000), "La Commune de Paris de 1871: mythes et réalités", La commune de 1871: utopie ou modernité?, Presses universitaires de Perpignan, pp. 15–19, doi:10.4000/books.pupvd.36640, retrieved 2022-04-13
  6. ^ Jolly, Jean (1996). Histoire du continent africain: de la préhistoire à 1600. Vol. 1. Éditions L'Harmattan.
  7. ^ Darmon, Pierre (2009). Un siècle de passions algériennes: Histoire de l'Algérie coloniale (1830-1940).
  8. ^ Sessions, Jennifer. "Making Settlers Muslim: Religion, Resistance and Everday Life in Nineteenth-Century French Algeria." French History 33, no. 2 (2019): 259-277.
  9. ^ Johnson, Douglas. 1967. “The History of Algeria - Histoire De L'Algérie Contemporaine: Conquête Et Colonisation. By Charles-André Julien. Paris: Presses Universitaires, 1964. Pp. 632, Illustrations, Maps. - The Passing of French Algeria. By David C. Gordon. London: Oxford University Press, 1966. Pp. V 265. 42s.” The Journal of African History 8 (3). Cambridge University Press: 548–49.
  10. ^ Forsdick, C. (2018). Postcolonializing the bagne. French Studies, 72(2), 237–255.
  11. ^ Brower, Benjamin C. A desert named peace: the violence of France's empire in the Algerian Sahara, 1844-1902. Columbia University Press, 2009.
  12. ^ Porch, Douglas. The Conquest of the Sahara. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
  13. ^ Porch, Douglas (1985). "THE DARK SIDE OF BEAU GESTE -- THE CONQUEST OF THE SAHARA". Proceedings of the Meeting of the French Colonial Historical Society. 10: 219–230. ISSN 0362-7055.
  14. ^ Greenhalgh, Michael (2014). The military and colonial destruction of the Roman landscape of North Africa, 1830-1900. Leiden, The Netherlands. ISBN 978-90-04-27163-0. OCLC 882104934.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. ^ Samuels, Maurice. “The Question of Assimilation in French Jewish Historiography.” French Historical Studies 43, no. 1 (2020): 29–45.
  16. ^ Peterson, Joseph W. “Honor, Excrement, Ethnography: Colonial Knowledge Between Missionary and Militaire in French Algeria.” The Journal of Modern History 93, no. 1 (2021): 34–67. https://doi.org/10.1086/712656.
  17. ^ Lorcin, Patricia M. E., and Todd Shepard. French Mediterraneans : Transnational and Imperial Histories, 2016.
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