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Mahal-e Thalatha
محال ثلاث
Maḥāll-e S̱alās̱
District of Qajar Iran
late 18th century–1920
CapitalKhorramabad
 • TypeHereditary chiefship
History 
• Established
late 18th century
• Disestablished
1920
Today part ofIran

The Mahal-e Thalatha (Persian: محال ثلاث, romanized: Maḥāll-e S̱alās̱, lit. 'the triple districts'), was an administrative division in Qajar Iran, consisting of the 3 districts of Tonekābon, Kojur, and Kelārestāq. Mahal-e Thalatha was ruled by the hereditary Khal'atbari family throughout its' existence.

Geography

Tonekābon was a very hilly region with a narrow coastal plain to the north. Khorramābād was the chief town of Tonekābon.[1]

History

Background and Establishment

The region of the Mahal-e Thalatha was historically known as Rostamdār. The boundaries of this province would vary, but it was locked in geographically between Māzandarān and Gilān.[2] Originally, Tonekabon was administratively part of Gilān. During the chaos after Nāder Shāh's death, it was separated from Gilān and became a part of Māzandarān.[3] After Karim Khān Zand defeated Mohammad Hasan Khān, Tonekābon was removed again and given to an 'Amārlu chieftain.[3] Gmelin attributes the district's cession to around 1765, due to the 'Amārlu khan's discovery of a conspiracy against Karim Khān.[4] Around 1772, Hedāyatollah Khān of Gilan seized Tonekābon from the 'Amārlu and incorporated it into his domains, appointing a governor at Gulayjān.[5][3] Shortly after, Tonekābon became governed by the Vakil's appointee, Mahdi Beg Khal'atbari.[5] He appealed to Karim Khān Zand due to the heavy exactions of the Qawi-Ḥeṣārlu governor, and recieved the title of khān in addition to the governorship.[6]

Early years

Mahdi Beg was an ally of Āghā Moḥammad Khān Qājār, and assisted him in his campaign against Hedāyatollah Khān.[6] The people of Rasht and Tonekābon became involved in a blood feud, and as a result, Tonekābon was separated from Gilan (being given to Māzandarān), and the districts of Kojur and Kelārestāq were added to Mahdi Beg's domains, forming the Mahal-e Thalatha.[6] Āghā Moḥammad Khān Qājār also resettled the Kurdish Khvājahvand and 'Abd al-Maleki tribes into Mahal-e Thalatha, in order to help protect the frontier.[2]

Mahdī Beg was eventually succeeded by Hādi Khān Khal'atbarī.[6] After the death of Fath 'Ali Shah, a conflict emerged between the crown prince Moḥammad Mirzā and the son of Fath 'Ali Shah, 'Ali Shāh Ẓell al-Solṭān. Many Māzandarāni leaders, such as the governor-general Moḥammad Qoli Mirzā Molkārā, supported 'Ali Shāh, while Vali Khān Khal'atbari, son of Hādi Khān, gave his support to Moḥammad Mirzā, who ended up on top.[7] The province of Māzandarān was reorganized, where the chiefs of Nur, Lārijān, Bandpey, and Savādkuh were prioritized over Tonekābon, Hezārjarib, and Ashraf.[7] Vali Khān would die at the siege of Herāt, being succeeded by his 13-year old son, Sa'id al-Daula.[6]

Khvājahvand Revolt

The districts of Kojur and Kelārdasht gradually became more interconnected with other areas of Iran. Living conditions increased among the Khvājahvands, becoming better than the natives by 1880.[7] However, by this time, there was a decrease in the quality of government. The 1880s was a period of high turnover rate among governors of Māzandarān as there was a widespread sale of offfices. Many governors became oppressive and sought to extort money from the population, which would fuel local conflicts.[7] Several revolts occurred in Galūgāh, Larījān, and other regions. The last of these revolts would occur among the Khvājahvands.

Sobḥan Qoli Khān, brother of Naser al-Din Shāh's Khvājahvand wife, gained power as a chief of the Kelārdasht Khvājahvands and gained more influence at the expense of his own brother. He utilized his familial links with the Shah to oppress the Khvājahvands under his influence with impunity.[7] In addition to oppressing his people, he also challenged the authority of the Khal'atbaris in the region.

Mohammad Vali Khān Nasr al-Soltaneh, son of Sa'id al-Daula, became governor of Mahal-e Thalatha in 1889 and gained control over the region's forests.[8] Eventually, an agreement was made with Charles Duffield, a British subject and the head of the New East Bank (Bānk-e Novin-e Sharq), granting him a five-year concession to export Iranian boxwood (100,000 a year from Gilan and 150,000 from Mazandaran). However, Sobḥan Qoli Khān and other local and Russian opposition forced the revocation of the contract, which was then given to the Koussis brothers (Russian subjects of Greek origin).[8][7]

In October 1891, crop failure across Gilān, Māzandarān, and Astarābād triggered an insurrection in Kelārdasht led by a sayyid, 'Alamgir, claimed to be against the Shah.[7] Sobḥan Qoli Khān and his family were killed by the rebels, and an army led by Sa'id al-Daula was sent to crush them. In an eight-hour battle on November 16, 1891, Sa'id al-Daula defeated the rebels, killing 200 while only losing 14 and bringing 'Alamgir to the capital in triumph.[7] During 'Alamgir's examination, he claimed his enemies framed him of revolting against the Shah, and that Sa'id al-Daula took advantage of tensions between the native villagers and Kurds to wage a war of destruction against the Khvājahvands. This convinced the Shah, who forgave him and was given a government stipend.[7]

Reign of Sepahsalar

As a consequence of Sepahsālār seizing their lands, the Khvājahvands would side against him and ally with the forces of Mohammad 'Ali Shah.[9]

Abolishment

After the appointment of Nezām ud-Daula as the governor of Māzandarān in November 1920, Mahal-e Thalatha ceased to be a separate administrative entity, "temporarily at any rate".[10] Kojur continued to be administratively attached to Tonekābon during the late Qajar and early Pahlavi period.[2] During Reza Shah's administration, Tonekābon, Kojur, and Kelārestaq were separated. Kojur became one of the 10 districts of Māzandarān, and became part of Nowshahr in the 1940s.[2]

Administration

The governorship of the Mahal-e Thalatha was hereditary.[11] The Khal'atbari governor of the area resided in the Tonekābon district. The center of Tonekābon was the village of Khorramābād; 'Aliābād was the chief place of Kelārestāq, and Kojur's center was in Kojur.[12] The Mahal-e Thalatha itself was divided into 3 districts: Tonekābon, Kelārestāq, and Kojur. Tonekabon consisted of 8 subdistricts (bolūks): Gulayjān (گليجان), Langā (لنگا), Neshtā (نشتا), Sakhtsar (سخت‌سر), Sarḥad (سرحد), Siyāh Rostāq (سیاه‌رستاق), and Tavābe' (توابع).[13] Kelārestāq had 4 bolūks (Birun Bashm (بيرون بشم), Dasht (دشت), Kelārdasht (کلاردشت), and Kuhestān (کوهستان)),[14] while Kojur had 14 (Baladeh ve Kurshīd Rostāq, Angās, Bandpey, Firuzkalā ve 'Olvikalā, Girān, Kālij, Kacha Rostāq, Kalurudpey, Kheyrrudkenār, Kūhpar, Panjak Rostāq, Rānus Rostāq, Chalandar, and Zand Rostāq).[15]

Tonekabon

Villages of the Tonekabon district[16]
Bolūk Villages
Baladeh (meaning chief place)[17] Baladeh (بلده)
Gulayjān Ākhund Maḥalleh (آخوند‌محله), 'Aliābād (علی‌آباد), 'Amughli Maḥalleh (عموغلی‌محله), Barashi (برشی), Bāzār Maḥalleh (بازار‌محله), Burāmsar (بورامسر), Chalusar (چلوسر), Chenārbon (چناربن), Faqih Maḥalleh (فقیه‌محله), Garākūh (گراکوه), Gulayjān (گلیجان), Harātbar (هراتبر), Karātkuti (کراتکتی), Karimābād (کریم‌آباد), Karjīkūh (کرجیکوه), Kashkuh (کشکوه), Khalkhāli Maḥalleh (خلخالی محله), Tāzehābād (تازه‌آباد), Kūkalāya (کوکلایا), Lashtu (لشتو), Lātkonār (لات‌کنار), Limāk (لیماک), Āsiyābsar (آسیاب‌سر), Gālesh Maḥalleh (گالش محله),
Langā
Neshtā
Sakhtsar
Sarḥad
Siyāh Rostāq
Tavābe'
Other villages of Tonekabon Aghuzdārkalā (اغوزدارکلا), Alpara (الپرا), Bālān (بالان), Burdatān (بوردتان), Falakdeh (فلکده), Golposhteh (گل‌پشته), Kachkan (کچکن), Kalāteh Espi (کلاته‌اسپی), Luli Maḥalleh (لولی‌محله), Miyānladak (میانلدک), Paramaz (پرمز), Qal'eh Poshteh (قلعه‌پشته), Raju (رجو), Rujineh (روجینه), Siyāhband (سیاه‌بند), Sulak (سولک), Takaleh (تکله), Tamijāneh (تمیجانه), Tārik Maḥalleh (تاریک‌محله), Tusakalā (توساکلا), Tusakolām (توساکلام)

Kelārestāq

Villages of the Kelārestāq district[18]
Bolūk Villages
Birun Bashm
Dasht
Kelārdasht
Kuhestān

Kojur

Villages of the Kojur district[19]

Population

The population of Mahal-e Thalatha consisted of a variety of ethnic groups. The native population of Tonekābon, Kelārestāq, and Kojur was largely tribal in composition.[20] The mountainous terrain of Mahal-e Thalatha hosted a variety of clans in the districts, each having their own chief. Tonekabon had 11 major clans: The Khal'atbari (خلعتبری), Qawi-Heṣārlu (قوی حصارلو), Kalāntariyyah (کلانتریه), Faqih (فقیه), Ṭālesh (طالش), Gulayj (گلیج), Daj (دج), Asās (اساس), Shurij (شورج), Ṭāleqāni (طالقانی), and Rudbāri (رودباری).[21] The inhabitants of Mahal-e Thalatha did not self-identify as Māzandarānis, and Māzandarānis saw them as Gilaks.[15] The main faith in the Mahal-e Thalatha was Twelver Shi'ism. However, there was a significant minority of Zaydis in Tonekābon.[22]

In addition to the native Caspian population, there also existed a large minority of Kurdish and Lak tribes in Mahal-e Thalatha. Due to constant upheavals in the Caspian region, Iranian rulers like Nāder Shāh and Āghā Mohammad Khan Qajar resettled Kurdish tribes in Māzandarān and the Alborz to secure the frontier.[2] The Khvājahvand and 'Abd al-Maleki tribes were resettled into Mahal-e Thalatha, supplanting the older Caspian population.[2] Most of the Kurds lived in Panjak Rostāq, Zānus Rostāq, and Tavābe'.[2] Each tribe had a chief and held their lands as a fief in exchange for military service.[7] In contrast to the native population, most of the Kurds were 'Ali Illahis, with a few Sunnis.[22][2]

The 'Abd al-Maleki were of Lak origin, a branch of the Qashqai tribe of Fars.[23] They were resettled by Āghā Mohammad Khan Qajar, first to Shahriyār, then later to Nur and Kojur. They adopted a semi-nomadic lifestyle, plundering travellers traversing through the plain along the Māzandarān-Gilān causeway and were endogamous.[7] In 1855, the Ṣadr-e Aʿẓam, Mirzā Āqā Khān Nuri transported them to Zaghmarz.[24][23]

In contrast, the Khvājahvands (a mix of Lak 'Ali Illahis and Sunni Kurds), remained in Mahal-e Thalatha. The Laks resided in Kelārdasht, numbered around 600 families in 1860, were headed by two chiefs, and contributed 250 horsemen to the government.[7] The Sunni Kurds also constituted 600 families, lead by two Sharafvand chiefs, and contributed 200 horsemen, having less land and warriors than the Laks.[7] The two sections of the tribe were on bad terms. For example, in the village of Lāhu, they lived daggers drawn against each other, with the Sunni Kurds considering the 'Ali Illahi Laks to be unbelievers.[7] Kojur's population consisted mainly of Khvājahvands and Gilaks.[15] The Khvājahvands and Laks were on bad terms with the other inhabitants, despised due to their ownership of the district's finest yaylaqs and because of their non-Shia faith.[25]

Economy

Tonekabon's economy was focused mainly on the production of silk and rice.[7] Apiculture was also practiced in it's hilly areas.[7]

References

  1. ^ Barthold, Vasilii Vladimirovich (2014-07-14). An Historical Geography of Iran. Princeton University Press. p. 237. ISBN 978-1-4008-5322-9.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Borijan, Habib. "KOJUR". Encyclopaedia Iranica Online. Retrieved 2024-05-07.
  3. ^ a b c Floor 2007, p. 339.
  4. ^ Floor 2007, p. 233.
  5. ^ a b Perry, John R. (2015-05-14). Karim Khan Zand: A History of Iran, 1747-1779. University of Chicago Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-226-66102-5.
  6. ^ a b c d e Rabino 1928, p. 22.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Kazembeyki 2003.
  8. ^ a b Sadeghian, Saghar (2016-11). "The Caspian Forests of Northern Iran during the Qajar and Pahlavi Periods: Deforestation, Regulation, and Reforestation". Iranian Studies. 49 (6): 973–996. doi:10.1080/00210862.2016.1241618. ISSN 0021-0862. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ^ Chaquèri, Cosroe (1995). The Soviet Socialist Republic of Iran, 1920-1921: Birth of the Trauma. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8229-3792-0.
  10. ^ "'Military report on Tehran and adjacent Provinces of North-West Persia (including the Caspian Littoral)'". Qatar Digital Library. 1922. p. 76, 381.
  11. ^ Rabino 1928, p. 15.
  12. ^ Kazembeyki 2003, p. 5.
  13. ^ Rabino 1928, p. 21.
  14. ^ Rabino 1928, p. 27.
  15. ^ a b c Rabino 1928, p. 30.
  16. ^ Rabino 1928, p. 105-07.
  17. ^ Kazembeyki 2003, p. 4.
  18. ^ Rabino 1928, p. 107-08.
  19. ^ Rabino 1928, p. 108-10.
  20. ^ Kazembeyki 2003, p. 8.
  21. ^ Rabino 1928, p. 21-22.
  22. ^ a b Rabino 1928, p. 14.
  23. ^ a b Oberling, Pierre (December 15, 1982). "ʿABD-AL-MALEKĪ". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
  24. ^ Kezembeyki 2003.
  25. ^ Rabino 1928, p. 23.

Sources

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