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Commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) constitutes a form of coercion and violence against children and amounts to forced labour and a contemporary form of slavery[1][2] as well as offering the sexual services of children for compensation, financial or otherwise[3].
A declaration of the World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, held in Stockholm in 1996, defined CSEC as:
- ‘sexual abuse by the adult and remuneration in cash or kind to the child or a third person or persons. The child is treated as a sexual object and as a commercial object.’[2]
CSEC includes the prostitution of children, child pornography,[2] child sex tourism and other forms of transactional sex where a child engages in sexual activities to have key needs fulfilled, such as food, shelter or access to education. It includes forms of transactional sex where the sexual abuse of children is not stopped or reported by household members, due to benefits derived by the household from the perpetrator. CSEC also potentially includes arranged marriages involving children under the age of 18 years, where the child has not freely consented to marriage and where the child is sexually abused.[citation needed]
The National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC) states that roughly one out of every five girls and one out of every ten boys will be sexually exploited or abused before they become of age[4]. UNICEF says that child sexual exploitation is “one of the gravest infringements of rights that a child can endure[5].”
Trends
Pornography
Child pornography is prevalent on the international, national, regional, and local levels. The differences of production, distribution, producers, evasion techniques, and status are explained in figure one. Child pornography is a multi-billion dollar enterprise that includes photographs, books, audiotapes, videos and more. These images depict children performing sexual acts with other children, adults, and other objects. The children are subjected to exploitation, rape, pedophilia, and in extreme cases, murder [6] . Pornography is often used as a gateway into the sex trade industry. Many pimps force children into pornography as a way of conditioning them to believe that what they are doing is acceptable [7]. The pimps may then use the pornography to blackmail the child and extort money from clients [8]. Child pornography, much like other forms of child sexual exploitation, screams for victim advocacy.
International | National | Regional | Local | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Production Format | State-of-art technology in audiovisual equipment, development, and mass reproduction process. | Essentially the same as international. | Private developing studios and labs; lower quality material. | Lowest quality of all the markets; relies on retail level technology (instant cameras. Photostats). Direct purchase or exchange, mail. |
Distribution Methods | Mail, courier, direct sale. | Adult bookstores, mail (commercial and Postal Service), direct sale. | Mail (commercial, U.S.), direct purchase or exchange, adult bookstores. | Direct purchase or exchange, mail. |
Producers | Syndicated sex rings, entrepreneurs, and freelance photographers. | Organized crime and freelance pornographers. | Primarily freelance pornographers, with some work hired out on contractual basis by local pimps or pedophiles. | Community or neighborhood pedophiles, sex rings, and pimps. |
Evasion Techniques | Mobile production and development sites, false identities, multiple disguised mailings of merchandise. | Use of middleman to arrange routine purchases, parental release form, and mobile production and developmental sites. | Transient identities and locations of pornographers, rapid turnover in children used as models, and parental release forms. | Victims coerced or blackmailed into silence; offender’s mobility and good reputation often insulate him from suspicion. |
Status | Still available, with emphasis on use of Third World youths as models; periodic inroads into traffic by foreign police and U.S. federal law enforcement agencies; reactive nature of police investigations precludes permanent abolition of production and distribution | Extremely resilient, despite harsh federal laws occasional disruption of the flow of merchandise. Resold in neighboring countries and exported to Asia, Europe, and Africa. | Extremely difficult to intercept on proactive basis. Pimps and pornographers use juvenile hustlers and molested children as subjects. May later emerge in foreign publications. Parental consent binds guilty parties to secrecy; increasing emphasis on suggestive materials. | Pornography made at the local level is the mainstay of the pedophilic subculture; typically discovered during police search or accidentally via postal investigations. |
Tourism and Trafficking
World Vision defines child sex tourism as traveling to sexually exploit children [10] . The act of tourism along with sex trafficking is used to generate revenue for a country[11] . “The Deputy Prime Minister of Thailand is quoted as asking provincial governors ‘to consider the jobs that will be created .’” This encouragement from the government explains why so many countries have such low fines for partaking in the sex trade. Many travel agencies offer information and guides on exotic entertainment further encouraging men to travel for sexual purposes [12]. Sex tourists bring money to underdeveloped economies that rely on the exploitation of their women and children for revenue [13]. Child trafficking and CSEC sometimes overlap. On the one hand, children who are trafficked are often trafficked for the purposes of CSEC.
However, not all trafficked children are trafficked for these purposes. Further, even if some of the children trafficked for other forms of work are subsequently sexually abused at work, this does not necessarily constitute CSEC. On the other hand, according to the U.S. Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, the definition of Severe Forms of Trafficking in Persons includes any commercial sex act performed by a person under the age of 18. This means that any minor who is commercially sexually exploited is defined as a trafficking victim, whether or not movement has taken place.[14] CSEC is also part of, but distinct from, child abuse, or even child sexual abuse. Child rape, for example, will not usually constitute CSEC. Neither will domestic violence.
Prostitution
Prostitution of children under the age of 18 years, child pornography and the (often related) sale and trafficking of children are often considered to be crimes of violence against children. They are considered to be forms of economic exploitation akin to forced labour or slavery. Such children often suffer irreparable damage to their physical and mental health. They face early pregnancy and risk sexually transmitted diseases, particularly HIV. They are often inadequately protected by the law and may be treated as criminals.[citation needed]
Causes and Dangers
Causes
The supply and demand for children in the sex trade industry is greatly influenced by the economic structure of a country. Kevin Bales says the increase of children sold into prostitution reflects the industrial transformation the country has experienced in the last fifty years. Young girls in Thailand are commonly from northern areas. Because of the harshness of the land and a family’s dependency on a good harvest many families see their daughters as commodities [15].
On the macro-level of causes for child sexual exploitation is the globalization of the consumer market and the influx of new goods and services that encourage new forms of consumerism [16]. The amount of money offered to parents for their children is often too good to refuse because they are living at or below the poverty level. The children are turned over to the buyer without any knowledge of what they were sold into [17].
Other macro-level influences include the expansion of construction sites and military bases in developing countries. These installations attract those who wish to sexually exploit children for large sums of money. The men who participate in the sexual exploitation of children at these installations are most often from developed countries and have no regard for the children ([18]).
Families who sell their daughters to brothels tend to repeat the pattern with their younger daughters. The younger daughters, however, are more willing to go. This is because their older sisters tell them stories of their extravagant times in the city. The girls admire their sister’s western clothes and money. The younger girls then enter into prostitution with little notion of what they are getting themselves into [19].
Dangers and Consequences
Whether the children be in pornography, brothels, or trafficked they are all at risk for sexually transmitted infections, physical violence, and psychological deterioration. Research has shown that “fifty to ninety percent of children in brothels in Southeast Asia are infected with HIV [20].” In many cases when children are brought into the sex trade industry they are beaten and raped until they are so broken they no longer try to escape [21]. Physical hazards can also include infertility, cervical cancer, assault, and sometimes murder [22]. Pregnancy is also a physical risk factor for many children. Much like if they are found to have HIV or AIDS the girls are thrown out of the brothels with nowhere to go [23]. Many of the children “break the conscious link between mind and body” in order to function in these situations (Bales 221). By doing so the children many children begin to think they are nothing more than whores and some develop suicidal thoughts [24] [25]. Other psychological risk factors include sleep and eating disorders, gender-disturbed sexual identity, hysteria, and even homicidal rage [26]. Outside of physical and psychological dangers lies fear of the law. Many girls and women are illegally trafficked across borders. If they manage to escape from the brothel or pimp the women and children quickly come to the attention of the authorities. Because they do not have proper documentation they are detained by the authorities. If they are held in local jails, the women and children often suffer further abuse and exploitation by the police [27].
How Trafficking Works
Many people are involved in the act of child sexual exploitation. It takes quite a few people to run a brothel and procure the children. Four parties are identified as being involved in a transaction in the child sex market: the perpetrator, the vendor, the facilitator, and the child. Perpetrators are those who partake in sex tourism and trafficking. The perpetrators are most often men who try to “rationalize their sexual involvement with children [28].” The vendors are the procurers and pimps of the children. Under their reign profit is maximized and trafficking itself is made possible. The facilitators are those who allow for child sex trafficking to occur. Parents who sell their daughters vendors fall into this category. The child is the most essential figure in this process. The term child, however, poses problems. Due to varying definitions across the globe it is difficult to differentiate between sexual abuse of a child and child prostitution. Also, every country and culture has its own way of determining when a child is no longer considered a minor.
Non-Government Organizations
ECPAT
ECPAT stands for end child prostitution and trafficking. As a non-government organization ECPAT is dedicated to finding ways to save children who are sexually exploited. Their vision is of a world free of child sexual exploitation [29]. One of their efforts includes the First World Congress against the Sexual Exploitation of Children hosted by the Swedish government. The Congress came up with an Agenda for Action which was framed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child [30]. ECPAT has also helped fund other non-government organizations to establish prevention programs in Thailand and other countries across the globe [31]. On top of funding, ECPAT also produces research reports on the state of child sexual exploitation [32]. ECPAT offers a multitude of involvement opportunities. The cooperation encourages people across the globe to donate and fundraise with them in order to increase the funds used to rescue children and further research efforts. Their page also provides a link to report the commercial sexual exploitation of children. If you plan on travelling they encourage travelers to book with companies who have signed the “Code of Conduct for the protection of children from sexual exploitation in travel and tourism [33].” Certain businesses and organizations may be eligible to become members of ECPAT. By doing so, organizations can further their efforts to aid against the commercial sexual exploitation of children. Most importantly ECPAT encourages everyone to stay informed about the global issue of child sexual exploitation [34].
World Vision
World Vision is another non-government organization with many areas of impact. World Vision works to address the causes the causes of why child protection is necessary. World Vision educates children who are prime targets to be trafficked. They inform them of the schemes used to lure them into slavery and what trafficking entails. This education empowers the children to have access to education, food, and shelter. World Vision offers many opportunities for citizens to get involved. Their opportunities include sponsoring a child, raising awareness to lawmakers, volunteering at World Vision events, and many more [35].
Government Involvement
Unfortunately, many government officials turn a blind eye to child sexual exploitation and just as many encourage it. Japan and the United States are the most prolific in terms of their exploitation of children. “During the Vietnam War, the U.S. military developed ‘recreation and rest centers,’ a type of government –subsidized tourist trade.” Reports note that these rest and recreation centers were closely associated with prostitutes and brothels. “It has been alleged that military personnel figure at a disproportionately high rate in the pedophile exchange lists confiscated by some police departments [36].” Due to issues such as those by the U.S. military, the United Nations has taken matters into its own hands. The Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography establishes a responsibility of governments to protect children from sexual exploitation. The Protocol requires countries to adopt protective measures while stressing the importance of prevention in the globalizing world [37]. Along with the help of UNICEF, a handbook for the Protocol was created. It states that “the reporting and monitoring processes of the Protocol should promote a global vision of child protection [38].” The same committee that put Protocol into action has put more effort into acquiring more accurate data on child sexual exploitation. The 2012 Global Report on Trafficking in Persons shows that with the Protocol in place countries without a child sexual exploitation offense have nearly halved. At the regional level criminal convictions of trafficking offenses have increased [39]. On top of the Protocol a Global Plan of Action has been instated. This plan involves strengthening the abilities of law enforcement to identify victims of trafficking, enhance investigations of alleged cases, and prosecute and punish the many corrupt officials who partake in sex trafficking and tourism [40]. In 1989 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Article 34 states that “State Parties undertake to protect the child from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. For these purposes, state parties shall in particular take all appropriate national, bilateral and multilateral measures to prevent: a) The inducement or coercion of children to engage in any unlawful sexual activity; b) The exploitative use of children in prostitution or other unlawful sexual practices; c) The exploitative use of children in pornographic performance and materials [41].”
Prevention through Education
One of the many ways to aid in the prevention of child sexual exploitation is through education. World Vision is one of the leaders in educating young girls on the dangers of trafficking and educating them on what they would really be getting themselves into [42]. Other efforts involve educating police personnel. The Family Planning Association of Nepal hosted a training session for the local police on how to handle a trafficking situation and how to identify women and children in sexual exploitative situations [43]. Public education is also a must. Because child sexual exploitation is driven by demand it is “crucial to raise the perceptions of consumers about the harm that is caused [44].” It has been suggested that public shutdowns of those who operate sex tours could influence deterrence [45]. Other efforts include simply educating potential victims about the tactics recruiters often use [46]. The previously mentioned Protocol requires members to provide preventative measures against child sexual exploitation; among these preventative measures is educating the public, especially families, on the dangers of sex tourism and trafficking.
Extent
Prostitution of children exists in every country, though the problem is most severe in South America and Asia.[47] The number of prostituted children is rising in other parts of the world, including North America, Africa, and Europe.[47] Exact statistics are difficult to obtain,[48] but it is estimated that there are around 10 million children involved in prostitution worldwide.[49]
- Note: this is a list of examples; it does not cover every country where child prostitution exists.
Country/location | Number of children involved in prostitution | Notes | Ref(s) |
---|---|---|---|
Worldwide | Up to 10,000,000 | [49] | |
Australia | 4,000 | [50] | |
Bangladesh | 10,000-29,000 | [51] | |
Brazil | 250,000-500,000 | Brazil is considered to have the worst levels of child sex trafficking after Thailand. | [52][53] |
Cambodia | ~30,000 | It has been estimated that about a third of all people in prostitution in Cambodia are under 18. | [54][55] |
Canada | 200,000 | [56] | |
Chile | 3,700 | The number of children involved in prostitution is believed to be on the decline. | [57] |
Colombia | 35,000 | Between 5,000 and 10,000 are on the streets of Bogotá. | [58] |
Dominican Republic | 30,000 | [59] | |
Ecuador | 5,200 | [60] | |
Estonia | 1,200 | [61] | |
Greece | 2,900 | Over 200 are believed to be below the age of 12. | [62] |
Hungary | 500 | [63] | |
India | 1,200,000 | In India, prostituted children account for 40% of people engaged in prostitution. | [64] |
Indonesia | 40,000-70,000 | UNICEF states that 30% of the females in prostitution are below 18. | [65][66] |
Malaysia | 43,000-142,000 | [67] | |
Mexico | 16,000-20,000 | Out of Mexico City’s 13,000 street children, 95% have already had at least one sexual encounter with an adult (many of them through prostitution). | [68][69][70] |
Nepal | 200,000 | According to research conducted by the International Labour Organization (ILO) on 440 people in prostitution from Kathmandu, approximately 30% of people engaged in prostitution are children. | [71][72] |
New Zealand | 210 | [73] | |
Peru | 500,000 | [74][75] | |
Philippines | 60,000-100,000 | [76] | |
Sri Lanka | 40,000 | UNICEF states that 30% of the females in prostitution are below 18. | [77] |
Thailand | 200,000-800,000 | [67] | |
United States | 100,000 | [78] | |
Vietnam | 20,000 | [79] | |
Zambia | 70,000 | [80] |
By 1999, it was reported that in Argentina prostitution of children was increasing at an alarming rate and that the average age was decreasing. The CATW fact book says Argentina is one of the favored destinations of pedophile sex tourists from Europe and the United States.[81] Argentina's Criminal Code criminalizes the prostitution of minors of eighteen years of age or younger,[82] but it only sanctions those who "promote or facilitate" prostitution, not the client who exploits the minor.[83]
See also
References
- ^ YAPI.org
- ^ a b c Clift, Stephen (2000). Tourism and Sex. Cengage Learning EMEA. pp. 75–78. ISBN 1-85567-636-2.
{{cite book}}
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suggested) (help) - ^ Gerdes, Louise I. (2006). Prostitution and sex trafficking: opposing viewpoints. Detroit: Greenhaven Press.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ U.S. Department of Justice (2007). Commercial sexual exploitation of children: what do we know and what do we do about it?. U.S. Dept. of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
- ^ Gerdes, Louise I. (2006). Prostitution and sex trafficking: opposing viewpoints. Detroit: Greenhaven Press.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Roby, J.L. (2005). "Women and children in the global sex trade: Toward more effective policy". International Social Work. 48 (2). doi:10.1177/0020872805050206.
- ^ The sexual trafficking in children: an investigation of the child sex trade. Dover, MA: Auburn House Pub. Co. 1988.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ The sexual trafficking in children: an investigation of the child sex trade. Dover, MA: Auburn House Pub. Co. 1988.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Campagna, Daniel S., and Donald L. Poffenberger. "Child Pornography." The Sexual Trafficking in Children: An Investigation of the Child Sex Trade. Dover, MA: Auburn House Pub., 1988. 116-38. Print.
- ^ World Vision. "What is Child Sex Tourism?".
- ^ Roby, J.L. (2005). "Women and children in the global sex trade: Toward more effective policy". International Social Work. 48 (2). doi:10.1177/0020872805050206.
- ^ Herrmann, Kenneth J., and Michael Jupp. "International Child Sex Trade." The Sexual Trafficking in Children: An Investigation of the Child Sex Trade. By Daniel S. Campagna and Donald L. Poffenberger. Dover, MA: Auburn House Pub., 1988. 140-57. Print.
- ^ Roby, J. L. "Women and Children in the Global Sex Trade: Toward More Effective Policy."International Social Work 48.2 (2005): 136-47. Sage Journals. Web. 09 Oct. 2013.
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- ^ Roby, J. L. "Women and Children in the Global Sex Trade: Toward More Effective Policy."International Social Work 48.2 (2005): 136-47. Sage Journals. Web. 09 Oct. 2013.
- ^ Bales, Kevin. "Because She Looks like a Child." Global Woman. By Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell. Hochschild. New York: Owl, 2004. 207-29. Print.
- ^ Roby, J. L. "Women and Children in the Global Sex Trade: Toward More Effective Policy."International Social Work 48.2 (2005): 136-47. Sage Journals. Web. 09 Oct. 2013.
- ^ Bales, Kevin. "Because She Looks like a Child." Global Woman. By Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell. Hochschild. New York: Owl, 2004. 207-29. Print.
- ^ Willis, Brian M., and Barry S. Levy. "Child Prostitution Is a Global Health Problem."Prostitution and Sex Trafficking: Opposing Viewpoints. By Louise I. Gerdes. Detroit: Greenhaven, 2006. 48-56. Print.
- ^ Bales, Kevin. "Because She Looks like a Child." Global Woman. By Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell. Hochschild. New York: Owl, 2004. 207-29. Print.
- ^ Campagna, Daniel S., and Donald L. Poffenberger. "Child Pornography." The Sexual Trafficking in Children: An Investigation of the Child Sex Trade. Dover, MA: Auburn House Pub., 1988. 116-38. Print.
- ^ Bales, Kevin. "Because She Looks like a Child." Global Woman. By Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell. Hochschild. New York: Owl, 2004. 207-29. Print.
- ^ Bales, Kevin. "Because She Looks like a Child." Global Woman. By Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell. Hochschild. New York: Owl, 2004. 207-29. Print.
- ^ Roby, J. L. "Women and Children in the Global Sex Trade: Toward More Effective Policy."International Social Work 48.2 (2005): 136-47. Sage Journals. Web. 09 Oct. 2013.
- ^ Campagna, Daniel S., and Donald L. Poffenberger. "Child Pornography." The Sexual Trafficking in Children: An Investigation of the Child Sex Trade. Dover, MA: Auburn House Pub., 1988. 116-38. Print.
- ^ Bales, Kevin. "Because She Looks like a Child." Global Woman. By Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell. Hochschild. New York: Owl, 2004. 207-29. Print.
- ^ Herrmann, Kenneth J., and Michael Jupp. "International Child Sex Trade." The Sexual Trafficking in Children: An Investigation of the Child Sex Trade. By Daniel S. Campagna and Donald L. Poffenberger. Dover, MA: Auburn House Pub., 1988. 140-57. Print.
- ^ ECPAT International. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Oct. 2013.
- ^ Pais, Marta Santos. "The Protection of Children from Sexual Exploitation Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography." International Journal Of Children's Rights 18.4 (2010): 551-66. Criminal Justice Abstracts with Full Text. Web. 09 Oct. 2013.
- ^ Munir, Abu Bakar, and Siti Hajar Bt. Mohd Yasin. "Commercial Sexual Exploitation."Child Abuse Review 6.2 (1997): 147-53. Web. 09 Oct. 2013.
- ^ ECPAT International. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Oct. 2013.
- ^ ECPAT International. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Oct. 2013.
- ^ ECPAT International. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Oct. 2013.
- ^ Sponsor a Child and Change Lives." World Vision. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Nov. 2013.
- ^ Herrmann, Kenneth J., and Michael Jupp. "International Child Sex Trade." The Sexual Trafficking in Children: An Investigation of the Child Sex Trade. By Daniel S. Campagna and Donald L. Poffenberger. Dover, MA: Auburn House Pub., 1988. 140-57. Print.
- ^ Pais, Marta Santos. "The Protection of Children from Sexual Exploitation Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography." International Journal Of Children's Rights 18.4 (2010): 551-66. Criminal Justice Abstracts with Full Text. Web. 09 Oct. 2013.
- ^ Pais, Marta Santos. "The Protection of Children from Sexual Exploitation Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography." International Journal Of Children's Rights 18.4 (2010): 551-66. Criminal Justice Abstracts with Full Text. Web. 09 Oct. 2013.
- ^ UNODC. "Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2012." United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Oct. 2013.
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- ^ Munir, Abu Bakar, and Siti Hajar Bt. Mohd Yasin. "Commercial Sexual Exploitation."Child Abuse Review 6.2 (1997): 147-53. Web. 09 Oct. 2013.
- ^ Sponsor a Child and Change Lives." World Vision. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Nov. 2013.
- ^ Kaufman, Michelle R., and Mary Crawford. "Sex Trafficking in Nepal: A Review of Intervention and Prevention Programs." Violence Against Women 17.5 (2011): n. pag. Sage Journals. Web. 8 Oct. 2013.
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- ^ Jaffe & Rosen 1997, p. 10-11.
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{{cite web}}
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- ^ Juvida, Sol F. (October 12). "Scourge of Child Prostitution". MANILA: IPS. Retrieved September 27, 2013.
{{cite news}}
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- ^ Regehr, Roberts & Wolbert Burgess 2012, p. 230.
- ^ "Vietnam". Child-hood.com. February 28, 1990. Retrieved September 15, 2012.
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- ^ "ECPAT International, A Step Forward". Gvnet.com. 1999.
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- Lim, Lin Lean (1998). The Sex Sector: The Economic and Social Bases of Prostitution in Southeast Asia. International Labour Organization. ISBN 9221095223.
- Madsen, Richard; Strong, Tracy B. (2009). The Many and the One: Religious and Secular Perspectives on Ethical Pluralism in the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1400825592.
- Matthews, Roger (2008). Prostitution, Politics & Policy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0203930878.
- Narayan, O.P. (2005). Harnessing Child Development: Children and the culture of human. Gyan Publishing House. ISBN 8182053005.
- O'Connor, Vivienne M.; Rausch, Colette; Klemenčič, Goran; Albrecht, Hans-Jörg (2007). Model Codes for Post-conflict Criminal Justice: Model criminal code. US Institute of Peace Press. ISBN 978-1601270122.
- Panter-Brick, Catherine; Smith, Malcolm T. (2000). Abandoned Children. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521775558.
- Penn, Michael L. (2003). Overcoming Violence Against Women and Girls: The International Campaign to Eradicate a Worldwide Problem. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0742525007.
- Regehr, Cheryl; Roberts, Albert R.; Wolbert Burgess, Ann (2012). Victimology: Theories and Applications. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 978-1449665333.
- Rodriguez, Junius P. (2011). Slavery in the Modern World: A History of Political, Social, and Economic Oppression. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1851097883.
- Sher, Julian (2011). Somebody's Daughter: The Hidden Story of America's Prostituted Children and the Battle to Save Them. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 978-1569768334.
External links
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Category:Child sexual abuse
Category:Forced prostitution
Category:Human trafficking
Category:Debt bondage
Category:Organized crime activity
Category:Children's rights
Category:Human rights abuses
Category:Sex crimes