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Science fiction in Italy emerged after the Second World War as a distinct and recognised literary genre, with its own production, readership and critical debate. However, the antecedents of the genre can be traced back to the literature of imaginary voyages and utopias of the Renaissance, if not to earlier works such as Marco Polo's Il Milione.^[1] From the middle of the 19th century, short stories of "scientific fantasies", "incredible tales" and "novels of future times" were published in newspaper supplements and literary magazines.^[2] At the beginning of the 20th century they were joined by the extraordinary adventures of authors of popular fiction such as Emilio Salgari, Yambo and Luigi Motta [it], as well as works by renowned "high culture" writers such as Massimo Bontempelli, Luigi Capuana, Guido Gozzano and Ercole Luigi Morselli.^[3]

The "official" birth of the genre in Italy can be dated to 1952, with the publication of the first specialised magazines Scienza fantastica [it] and Urania, and the emergence of the word "fantascienza", an Italian cast of science fiction, while the "golden years" of the genre go from 1957 to 1960-1962.^[4] The 1960s and 1970s were a particularly fruitful time, marked by a surge in literary works, films, television productions, and comics that explored complex themes and reached a wider audience.

Although science fiction has been one of the most popular genres in Italy since the late 1950s, it has not received critical acclaim. Despite an active and organised fandom, the Italian cultural elite remained largely indifferent or even hostile to science fiction, unlike other genres that had gained recognition in academia and prestigious publications.^[5]

The definition of science fiction is not fixed, leading to debates on whether older works belong to the genre. Some argue that Marco Polo's "Il Milione" (1298), with its descriptions of the "alien" Far East, could be considered early science fiction due to its depiction of a "first contact" scenario.

Renaissance literature also features fantastical elements. "Hypnerotomachia Poliphili" (1499) by Francesco Colonna contains themes similar to science fiction, although it leans more toward esotericism. Ludovico Ariosto's epic poem "Orlando Furioso" (1516, 1532) narrates Astolfo's journey to the Moon, a fantastical voyage with echoes of space travel.

The most direct precursors of Italian science fiction, often with political themes, can be found in the fantastical voyages and utopian literature of the 16th and 17th centuries. Thomas More's "Utopia" (1516), translated into Italian in 1548, significantly influenced this trend. These works, considered progressive and revolutionary for their time, explored alternative societies and social structures. Notable examples include "I mondi" by Anton Francesco Doni (1552) and "La città del sole" by Tommaso Campanella (1602).

In 1670, Francesco Lana de Terzi's "Prodromo" presented the first study on the possibility of human spaceflight, a crucial text for future space travel narratives.

The late 17th and 18th centuries, the Age of Enlightenment, saw a decline in utopian literature and a growing influence of French and British authors like Voltaire and Jonathan Swift. Works like Zaccaria Seriman's "Viaggi di Enrico Wanton" (1749, 1764) offered satirical views of society, while Giacomo Casanova's "Icosameron" (1788) ventured into the concept of a Hollow Earth.

Poetry also embraced fantastical themes, with works like "La moda" by Giambattista Roberti (1746) and "Il mondo della Luna" by Saverio Bettinelli (1767). Even Carlo Goldoni explored the genre in his comedic play "Il mondo della luna" (1750).

In conclusion, the roots of Italian science fiction are diverse and can be traced back to various literary and cultural works from the Middle Ages to the 18th century. These early precursors, with their fantastical voyages, utopian visions, and explorations of the unknown, paved the way for the development of the genre in Italy in the following centuries.

During the Romantic period, Italian culture was deeply involved in the Risorgimento (the Italian unification movement) and was less engaged with the industrial and scientific advancements of the time. Consequently, Italian literature lacked a counterpart to works like Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein" or the tales of Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne. However, Giacomo Leopardi, inspired by Galileo, explored the relationship between science and imagination in his "Operette morali" (1827).

From 1835 onwards, newspapers and pamphlets worldwide featured claims of revolutionary scientific discoveries falsely attributed to astronomer John Herschel, known as the "Great Moon Hoax." This sparked interest in lunar exploration and led to the publication of works like "Un viaggetto nella Luna" (1836) and "Viaggio alla luna" (1857) by Ernesto Capocci, which featured the first female space traveler.

Ippolito Nievo, known for his historical novel "Le confessioni d'un italiano," wrote one of the most significant Italian science fiction works of the century, "Storia filosofica dei secoli futuri" (1859). This satirical and humorous work, oscillating between utopia and dystopia, anticipated future historical events and explored political, social, and cultural themes.

The 1870s saw the emergence of works inspired by Jules Verne's "wonders of the future" and the "future war" genre. Carlo Rossi's "Il racconto di un guardiano di spiaggia" (1872) imagined a French naval invasion of Italy, serving as a political warning. In 1874, Agostino Della Sala Spada's "Nel 2073! Sogni d'uno stravagante" and Carlo Dossi's "La colonia felice" explored utopian and dystopian societies.

Translations of Jules Verne's works significantly influenced Italian authors, particularly Emilio Salgari. While Salgari is often referred to as the "Italian Verne," his works rarely featured futuristic technology. The exception is his novel "Le meraviglie del duemila" (1907), considered a landmark in early Italian science fiction, depicting a technologically advanced future in the year 2003.

The late 19th century saw the rise of popular adventure magazines and serialized novels, leading to the emergence of a popular science fiction genre aimed initially at adults and later at young readers. Science fiction also found expression in other forms, such as the 1885 ballet "Il mondo della luna" and Giovanni Schiaparelli's observations of Mars, which fueled speculation about "canals" on the red planet and inspired novels like "Dalla Terra a Marte" (1895).

In conclusion, the 19th century witnessed the gradual emergence of science fiction in Italy, influenced by foreign authors, scientific discoveries, and social changes. While the genre faced challenges in gaining recognition, it laid the groundwork for further development in the 20th century, with a growing number of authors and publications exploring fantastical and futuristic themes.

Salgari: A Pioneer of Italian Science Fiction

Emilio Salgari, a renowned Italian adventure novelist, is often considered a precursor of Italian science fiction. Although dubbed the "Italian Verne," Salgari rarely ventured into futuristic speculation, his works mainly reflecting the technology of his time.

A notable exception is his 1907 novel, "Le meraviglie del duemila" (The Wonders of the Year 2000), a landmark in early Italian science fiction. The story follows two men who, through a plant-based discovery, travel 100 years into the future to 2003. They encounter a transformed society with flying machines, underground trains, underwater cities, and contact with Martians. However, the protagonists tragically perish due to the frantic pace of future life and electrified air, a cautionary tale about the potential dangers of scientific progress.

While Salgari's other works aren't set in the future, several contain Verne-inspired science fiction elements. "Al Polo Nord" (1898) features a submarine voyage, "La montagna d'oro" (1901) an airship adventure, and "I figli dell'aria" (1904) and its sequel "Il re dell'aria" (1907) showcase flying machines against the backdrop of the Russo-Japanese War. Short stories like "Alla conquista della Luna" (1893) and "La stella filante" (1903) also delve into science fiction themes.

Salgari's influence extended beyond traditional science fiction. "Duemila leghe sotto l'America" (1888) involves a treasure hunt in a lost underground world, while "L'isola del Mar dei Sargassi" echoes Verne's extraordinary voyages.

In summary, while primarily an adventure novelist, Emilio Salgari made significant contributions to early Italian science fiction. His works, particularly "Le meraviglie del duemila," explored futuristic technology and societal changes, offering a glimpse into a potential future and its associated challenges.

The early 20th century saw a gradual integration of science fiction elements into Italian literature. Popular authors like Emilio Salgari, Yambo, and Luigi Motta incorporated futuristic technology, space travel, and societal transformations into their adventure and travel stories. While the genre struggled to gain widespread acceptance due to the prevailing intellectual climate's skepticism towards science and technology, these early works laid the foundation for its future development.

• Key Trends and Authors: Two primary trends defined Italian science fiction during this period. The first was a continuation of adventure and extraordinary journey narratives, often blurring the lines between children's and adult literature. The second trend centered on "anticipations" of the future, often presenting utopian or dystopian visions of society.
• Notable Authors:
  • Emilio Salgari: Renowned for his adventure novels, Salgari's "Le meraviglie del duemila" (The Wonders of the Year 2000) is considered a pioneering work of Italian proto-science fiction. It explores time travel, futuristic technology, and offers a cautionary tale about the potential dangers of unchecked progress.
  • Yambo (Enrico Novelli): A versatile writer and illustrator, Yambo penned numerous stories about extraordinary journeys, space exploration, and encounters with alien lifeforms. He also directed one of the first Italian science fiction films, "An Interplanetary Marriage," further expanding the genre's reach.
  • Luigi Motta: Following in Salgari's footsteps, Motta incorporated scientific elements into his adventure novels, with "The Princess of Roses" notably exploring future warfare and political intrigue.
• Other Developments: The rise of popular series and anthologies provided a crucial platform for science fiction stories, fostering its growth. However, the lack of specialized periodicals hindered the genre's cohesion and recognition. Philosopher Antonio Gramsci's critical analysis of science fiction as a distinct genre marked a crucial step towards its legitimization. However, the fascist regime's censorship in the 1930s and 1940s limited exposure to American science fiction, delaying its significant influence until later decades.

The 1960s and 1970s were a period of significant growth and maturity for Italian science fiction. The genre evolved beyond its pulp origins, embracing a wider range of themes and styles. The contributions of talented authors, the emergence of a dedicated fan community, and the expansion into various media solidified science fiction's position as a significant and influential force in Italian culture.

• Literary Landscape: The "Urania" series played a crucial role in popularizing science fiction, while Italian authors like Lino Aldani, Inisero Cremaschi, Sandro Sandrelli, and Roberta Rambelli emerged as leading voices in the genre. Specialized magazines like "Futuro," "Gamma," and "Robot" provided platforms for these authors to experiment and challenge conventions. The publication of anthologies by mainstream publishers further legitimized science fiction's literary merit.
• Science Fiction in Film and Television: The 1960s saw a boom in Italian science fiction films, with directors like Antonio Margheriti and Mario Bava exploring space adventures and dystopian futures. The late 1960s and 1970s witnessed a shift towards sociological science fiction, with films like "H2S," "Ecce Homo - I sopravvissuti," and "I cannibali" using the genre to satirize society and explore political themes. Television productions like "A come Andromeda" and "Gamma" brought science fiction to the small screen, reaching a wider audience.
• Science Fiction in Comics: Italian comics embraced the superhero and masked vigilante genres, with characters like Junior, Atlas, and Misterix captivating readers. The "fantasexy" genre, featuring strong female protagonists like Uranella and Valentina, also gained popularity. Humorous and dystopian comics by artists like Jacovitti and Bonvi satirized society and explored the potential consequences of technological advancement.
• The Rise of Fandom: The 1970s saw a resurgence of science fiction fandom, with numerous fanzines and clubs fostering a sense of community among enthusiasts. Conventions like Italcon provided opportunities for networking and celebration, while the Premio Italia award recognized outstanding contributions to Italian science fiction.

The 1960s and 1970s were a defining period for Italian science fiction, marked by a significant expansion in its reach and influence. The genre matured, embracing a wider range of themes and styles, and gained greater cultural recognition. The contributions of talented authors, the emergence of a dedicated fan community, and the expansion into various media solidified science fiction's position as a vital and influential force in Italian culture. This legacy continues to inspire and shape the genre's ongoing development in Italy and beyond.

Origins and Early Influences (19th Century – Early 20th Century)

The roots of Italian science fiction date back to the late 19th century, with influences from international authors like Jules Verne and H.G. Wells, whose works were widely translated and popularized in Italy. Early Italian science fiction often intertwined futuristic narratives with elements of adventure, utopianism, and societal critique. Initial examples include works like “The Last Man” by Giacomo Leopardi and “L’anno 3000: Sogno” by Paolo Mantegazza, which imagined future societies and technological advancements. During this period, science fiction remained a niche within broader literary and cultural movements, often considered a sub-genre of adventure or speculative fiction rather than a distinct category.

The Rise of Pulp Magazines and Early Italian Authors (1920s – 1930s)

In the 1920s and 1930s, the genre gained modest traction through pulp magazines and serialized publications, which introduced Italian readers to both international and domestic science fiction. Notable magazines like "I Romanzi di Urania" and "Avventure nel mondo della scienza" featured translated works alongside original Italian stories. This era saw the emergence of Italian authors who began experimenting with science fiction themes, including Guido Gozzano, who wrote “Le Farfalle” and “L’Ingegnere.” These early works often explored the implications of technological progress and dystopian futures, reflecting contemporary anxieties about industrialization and modernization.

Post-World War II Expansion (1940s – 1950s)

After World War II, Italy experienced significant social and economic changes, which influenced the growth of science fiction as a genre. The 1950s marked a turning point, with the launch of “Urania” in 1952, a magazine edited by Giorgio Monicelli, which played a crucial role in establishing science fiction as a popular genre in Italy. “Urania” not only published translated works from prominent international authors like Isaac Asimov, Arthur C. Clarke, and Ray Bradbury but also supported Italian writers by providing a platform for their stories. The post-war period also saw the establishment of publishing houses dedicated to science fiction, such as Edizioni Futuro and Editrice Nord, which helped to further promote and distribute science fiction literature in Italy.

The Golden Age of Italian Science Fiction (1960s – 1970s)

The 1960s and 1970s are often regarded as the golden age of Italian science fiction. This period saw the emergence of prominent Italian authors who contributed significantly to the genre, including Lino Aldani, Renato Pestriniero, and Vittorio Curtoni. Aldani, often considered one of the most influential figures in Italian science fiction, explored themes of social alienation, technological dystopia, and the human condition in works like “Quando le radici” and “Eclissi 2000.” His writing was marked by a critical stance towards technological progress and its impact on human relationships.

During this time, science fiction began to address more complex and diverse themes, including space exploration, environmental issues, and social critique, reflecting the broader cultural and political upheavals of the 1960s. The influence of the New Wave movement, which brought a more experimental and literary approach to science fiction, was also felt in Italy, inspiring authors to push the boundaries of the genre. Magazines such as “Galassia” and “Oltre il Cielo” became important venues for the publication of both international and Italian science fiction, fostering a vibrant community of writers and fans.

Challenges and Decline (1980s)

The 1980s presented significant challenges for Italian science fiction, as the genre faced increasing competition from international literature and shifts in the publishing industry. The rise of video games, comic books, and other forms of entertainment also drew attention away from traditional science fiction literature. As a result, many dedicated science fiction magazines and publishers struggled to survive, leading to a decline in the availability of platforms for Italian authors. The market was further saturated by a flood of translated works from the United States and the United Kingdom, which often overshadowed domestic productions.

Despite these challenges, the 1980s also saw the emergence of new voices in Italian science fiction, such as Franco Ricciardiello and Nicoletta Vallorani, who explored themes of cyberpunk, postmodernism, and feminist critique. These authors brought fresh perspectives to the genre, although their works often found more success in niche or academic circles than in mainstream markets.

Revival and Evolution (1990s – 2000s)

In the 1990s and 2000s, Italian science fiction began to experience a revival, driven by the rise of fandom, conventions, and the internet, which created new opportunities for writers and readers to connect. The emergence of online communities and self-publishing platforms allowed Italian science fiction to reach a broader audience, while specialized conventions such as Italcon and the Trieste Science+Fiction Festival helped to foster a renewed interest in the genre.

This period also saw a diversification of themes and styles within Italian science fiction, with authors exploring issues such as environmental degradation, artificial intelligence, and the ethical implications of biotechnology. Writers like Valerio Evangelisti, known for his “Nicolas Eymerich” series, blended historical fiction with science fiction, creating a unique sub-genre that resonated with readers. Similarly, Luca Masali and Francesco Verso brought fresh narratives and innovative approaches, contributing to the evolving landscape of Italian science fiction.

Contemporary Trends and the Future (2010s – Present)

In recent years, Italian science fiction has continued to evolve, reflecting contemporary societal and technological concerns. The genre has increasingly engaged with global themes such as climate change, migration, and the impact of digital technology on human identity and social structures. Contemporary authors like Clelia Farris, with her works on posthumanism, and Dario Tonani, known for his dystopian visions, represent the diverse and dynamic nature of current Italian science fiction.

Italian science fiction has also expanded into other media, including film, television, and graphic novels, further broadening its reach and appeal. Notable examples include the film “Il Ragazzo Invisibile” directed by Gabriele Salvatores and the graphic novel series “Orfani” created by Roberto Recchioni. These works have helped to introduce science fiction to new audiences and demonstrate the genre's versatility and relevance in contemporary Italian culture.

Despite ongoing challenges, such as competition from international markets and the dominance of other genres, Italian science fiction remains a vital and innovative field. It continues to explore and question the implications of technological and social change, offering unique perspectives that reflect Italy’s cultural and historical context.

Conclusion

The history of science fiction in Italy is characterized by periods of growth, decline, and renewal, reflecting broader cultural, social, and technological changes. From its early beginnings influenced by international works to the establishment of a vibrant domestic scene in the mid-20th century, and through the challenges of the 1980s and the subsequent revival in the digital age, Italian science fiction has evolved into a diverse and dynamic genre. Today, it continues to explore contemporary issues and maintain its distinctive voice within the global science fiction community.

Citeremo, sapendo di dimenticarne molte, opere come Anna di Niccolò Ammaniti (2015), La festa nera di Violetta Bellocchio (2018), Nel grande vuoto di Adil Bellafqih (menzione speciale al Premio Calvino 2019), Avrai i miei occhi di Nicoletta Vallorani (2019), L’isola delle madri di Maria Rosa Cutrufelli (2020), Configurazione Tundra di Elena Giorgiana Mirabelli (2020).^[6]

The exact boundaries of science fiction are often debated, but Italy has a tradition of early works that foreshadowed the genre. These "proto-science fiction" narratives, often rooted in exploration, social commentary, and technological speculation, paved the way for the development of Italian science fiction.

• Marco Polo's "Il Milione" (1298): This travelogue, recounting Polo's journey to the Far East, offers a glimpse into an "alien" culture, capturing the essence of "first contact" narratives prevalent in modern science fiction.
• Renaissance Utopias and Fantastical Tales: The Renaissance period saw a flourishing of utopian and fantastical literature, often interwoven with political commentary, referred to as "fantapolitical." Works like Francesco Colonna's "Hypnerotomachia Poliphili" and Dante Alighieri's "Divine Comedy" explored imaginative realms and otherworldly journeys, introducing themes that would later become central to science fiction. Dante's depiction of ascending through celestial spheres, though grounded in medieval cosmology, foreshadows the fascination with space travel that characterizes much of modern science fiction.
• 18th-Century Developments: The 18th century witnessed a shift away from utopian fiction towards satire and social commentary, as seen in works like Zaccaria Seriman's "Travels to the Unknown Lands of Australia." Poets such as Biagio Caputi and Giovanni Battista Zappi continued to explore fantastical themes in their works, often inspired by Ariosto's lunar journey in "Orlando Furioso."

Analytical jurisprudence often distinguishes between two types of legal positivism: inclusive and exclusive legal positivism. The former accepts, whreas the latter denies, that there may be cases in which determining what the law is follows from considerations about what the law ought to be according to morality.^[7]

Both qualify as legal positivism because they share two basic tenets. First, the "social thesis": law is essentially a human creation and therefore its content is ultimately determined by social facts, such as acts of legislation, judicial decisions, and customs. Second, the "separation thesis": law and morality are conceptually distinct phenomena and therefore a norm can belong to the law even if is unjust or unfair.^[8][9]

On the bedrock of these two shared assumptions, the two theories differ in their interpretation of how morality might influence law.

According to inclusive legal positivism (also called "soft positivism") it is possible that the criteria for identifying valid laws in a given legal system (that is, in Hart's terminology, its "rule of recognition") incorporate moral standards. In other words, while law and morality are conceptually distinct, a particular legal system might, as a matter of fact, make the validity of some laws dependent on their moral merit. Typically, this happens when a constitution includes a clause requiring laws to respect human rights, or human dignity, or equality, thus incorporating some moral standard into the legal system. Conformity with moral principle may be a condition of legal validity.^[8] However, this is not necessarily the case, but is contingent upon the content of the law and its rule of recognition, which may or may not include moral standards. Inclusive legal positivism has been embraced or defended by authors such as Jules Coleman, Matthew Kramer, Wil Waluchow, and H. L. A. Hart himself.^[10]

According to exclusive legal positivism ("hard positivism") the validity of a law is never determined by its moral content, but depends only on its source (e.g., being enacted by a legislature) and its compliance with the legal system's formal procedures. Therefore, if the constitution reference moral principles, these principles are not incorporated into the law as moral standards but rather the constitution is authorising the judges and the other law-applying institutions to develop and modify the law by resorting to moral reasoning.^[10] Conformity with moral principle is necessarily not a condition of legal validity.^[8] Exclusive legal positivism is mainly associated with the name of Joseph Raz and has been advocated by authors such as Brian Leiter, Andrei Marmor and Scott Shapiro.^[11]

To sum up, inclusive positivism allows for the possibility that morality can play a role in determining legal validity in some legal systems, while exclusive positivism holds that morality can never be a direct criterion for legal validity, even if a legal system references moral concepts.

Marmor, A. 2002. ‘Exclusive Legal Positivism’. In J. Coleman and S. Shapiro (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law. Oxford University

Press: 104–24

^[12]

• Himma, Kenneth Einar (2004-01-22). Inclusive Legal Positivism. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199270972.013.0004.

^[13]

^[14] * Marmor, Andrei (2004-01-22). Exclusive Legal Positivism. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199270972.013.0003.

^[15]

Marmor, A. 2002. ‘Exclusive Legal Positivism’. In J. Coleman and S. Shapiro (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law. Oxford University

Press: 104–24

The RfC proposes to add widespread public attention alongside misinformation to the lead. Since several RSs shared by JSwift49 mention the "global debate over gender eligibility and fairness" sparked by Khelif at the Olympics, editors may wonder about the content of that debate: is it just bigotry and hate speech? In that case, "misinformation" would be enough. I believe there's been also a reasoned public debate about non-trivial, non-hateful issues: was the IOC's decision not to perform sex verification tests, that is, not to enquire about the athletes' gender as certified in their passports, a good decision? Some sports journalists and academics have questioned this decision and raised concerns about the safety of the athletes and the fairness of the competition. I don't have an opinion on the matter - I'm not particularly interested in sport or GENSEX - but I believe that NPOV dictates that we don't deny or trivialise a public debate that is reasonable and significant. So in the collapsible box I'm including some extracts from "voices" in that debate (except for the first one, which is an RS, they are all editorials and opinion commentaries, not RSs). I'm not proposing to use them as sources for the article on Khelif, but I feel that the RfC would be better informed if editors knew what this "widespread public attention" or "public debate" is about..

In 2024, Russian forces continued to control the facility while IAEA teams maintained a monitoring presence. Russia has repeatedly accused Ukraine of attacking the facility. These accusations include attacks by drone and shelling, with Russia claiming that Ukraine is putting nuclear safety at risk.^[16][17] Ukraine denies these claims, asserts that Russia is conducting a disinformation campaign and is itself responsible for attacks on the plant.^[18]

On 7 April 2024, there were confirmed drone strikes targeting the Zaporizhzhia plant, the first since November 2022.^[19][20] On 3 July 2024, Zaporizhzhia plant's Russian management reported additional drone strikes, resulting in injuries to eight employees. The IAEA's report on the incident did not attribute the attack to any specific drone operator. Ukraine did not comment on the matter.^[21]

It was ordered that the young black man be given a stipend (Japanese: 扶持, romanized: fuchi), named Yasuke, and provided with a short sword (Japanese: さや, romanized: sayamaki) and a private residence (Japanese: 私宅, romanized: shitaku). At times, he was also entrusted with carrying the master's weapons (Japanese: 道具, romanized: dōgu) and belongings.

The name Yasuke was given to him by Nobunaga.^[22] His real name, date and place of birth, native language, and religion are unknown. Based on Ōta Gyūichi's biography of Nobunaga, Shinchō Kōki ("The Chronicle of Lord Nobunaga"), Yasuke was estimated to be in his mid-twenties in 1581, suggesting he was born around 1555. Accounts from his time suggest Yasuke accompanied Alessandro Valignano from "the Indies," a term encompassing Portuguese overseas territories like Goa and Cochin (modern-day Goa and Kochi in India) as well as Portuguese Mozambique.^[23] Historian Thomas Lockley has also proposed that Yasuke might have originated from the Dinka people of what is now South Sudan.^[23] Both a 1581 letter by Jesuit Lourenço Mexia^[24] and a later account from 1627 by François Solier refer to Yasuke as cafre, a term used by the Portuguese for individuals with dark skin, often slaves.^[25][26][a] Solier further described Yasuke as a More Cafre, which has been interpreted as "Moorish infidel," and identified him as a servant from Mozambique.^[25][26] Due to these descriptions, some historians have suggested that Yasuke may have been Muslim.^[25][26]

^[28]

^[29]

in a letter written by Luis Frois, Yasuke is referred to as "Cafre."^[30]

Solier describes the servant as native of Mozambique, a More Cafre (kāfir) or Moorish infidel^[31]

Crasset states that Yasuke was a servant brought from India^[32]

Crasset, Jean (1925). 日本教会史 (Histoire de l'eglise du Japon) (in Japanese). 太陽堂書店 (Taiyōdō Bookshop). Archived from the original on 19 September 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2023.

Is this content WP:DUE? Symphony Regalia thinks it's not, Eirikr thinks it is. I agree with Symphony Regalia. Firstly, the information is hard to interpret: is 50,000 people signing a petition a lot or not? I have no idea, I don't know the gaming community enough to answer that question. If they changed the colour of Mario Bross' moustache, how many people would sign? Hard to say. I read that a petition to replace Kevin Spacey with Kevin James in House of Cards also got 50,000 signatures. So the information itself is not "knowledge" (to be disseminated), but raw data (to be interpreted). Secondly, does this have anything to do with Yasuke? We have a "In popular culture" section, but we should not overload it with information; we already provide a link so that people interested in Assassin's Creed Shadows will find the information they need in the dedicated article.

Hexenakte has been bludgeoning the Yasuke talk page since 16 May 2024, posting original research there and on the related RSN thread to the point of disruption. Their good faith is not in question, but there might be an issue of WP:CIR as they seem oblivious to WP:OR and WP:RS and have been unresponsive to many attempts by several editors to educate them on these core policies. They've turned the Yasuke talk page into an unreadable mess by making 113 edits, corresponding to 25% of the text. The latest exchange on the RSN discussion convinced me to open this section. Hexenakte posted 10kB of text/1500 words arguing that Lockley mistranslated a passage from the Shinchō Kōki. They were honest and open enough to admit I am still a beginner in Japanese and yet they thought that their original research might be of interest to WP editors. User:XeCyranium protested: This is the original research I was referring to. As editors, it's not our decision that the translation is wrong, you need sources specifically saying that it is wrong. Hexenakte's resentful reply shows that they don't understand anything about WP:RO and have no intention of understanding it in the future. Some kind of sanction is needed to prevent further disruption, especially since they said that they plan on taking this issue up to the Samurai talk page itself with a more thorough comprehensive list of secondary academic sources.

Your reply at RS/N shows that you may not have understood the meaning of WP:NOR. An "original research" in the context of Wikipedia is neither bad research, false research, nor research without any reference to primary and secondary sources: it is research that adds something to the body of human knowledge, i.e. research whose conclusion is not directly supported by a reliable source - therefore that research is "original", innovative. Now, you have posted 10kB of text/1500 words arguing that Lockley mistranslated a passage from the Shinchō Kōki. If you are right, that adds something to the body of human knowledge on the subject, and your findings deserve to be published somewhere; but WP talk pages and noticeboards may not be the appropriate outlet. True enough WP:NOR applies only to article namespace. It would be unreasonable and detrimental to the quality of the project if WP:NOR were enforced in talk page discussions: sometimes editors need to check the sources, at least to understand what they are talking about, and to do so they may engage in activities that can be described as "research". This is especially true at RS/N, where the point is precisely to understand whether sources are reliable, which implies carefully assessing their content by comparing it with that reported by sources that are certainly reliable. However, talk page discussions as well as discussions on RS/N should ultimately aim to improve the quality of WP articles by making the knowledge contained in reliable sources more easily accessible to readers: we're not in the business of creating new knowledge (e.g. critical knowledge of Lockley's work and the Shinchō Kōki), but in the business of circulating existing knowledge. That's why we don't engage in the kind of in-depth scrutiny of sources that you're interested in. Even if you were correct in your assessment of Lockley, we do not have the expertise to determine whether this is the case. A community of anonymous amateurs with no specific expertise in Japanese history (or any other subject, for that matter) is not the place to engage in that kind of critical scrutiny of sources. Therefore, your 1500 words are irrelevant to the WP editors, they provide no reason to rely on Lockley or to reject Lockley as an unreliable source, and since they are irrelevant, we express this by saying "this is OR". Many editors have already tried to persuade you that this approach to talk page discussion is not helpful: why should you doubt their words? The quality of Wikipedia would not improve if editors were free to depart from sources by engaging in a freewheeling discussion of their pros and cons.

René Aust (born 24 April 1987 in Lüdinghausen) is a German politician (AfD, previously SPD). He entered the state parliament of Thuringia after the state elections of 27 October 2019. In the 2024 European Parliament election he came third on his party's list and entered the European Parliament.^[1]

As the AfD had banned Maximilian Krah and Petr Bystron from appearing in public during the campaign for the 2024 European elections, Aust was "in the national spotlight."^[2] The AfD won 15 of Germany's 96 seats in the European Parliament. At their inaugural meeting, the 15 newly elected MEPs chose Aust as head of the AfD's delegation to the European Parliament, while also approving a motion not to include Krah in their delegation.^[3]

^[4]

As the AfD banned Maximilian Krah and Petr Bystron from appearing in public during the election campaign ahead of the 2024 European elections in Germany, Aust was ‘in the national spotlight’[2].

The AfD won 15 of the 96 MEP seats in the 2024 European elections in Germany. Krah returns to the European Parliament. One day after the election, the 15 newly elected MEPs voted at their constituent meeting on a motion not to include Krah in the future AfD delegation to the European Parliament. Eight AfD MEPs voted in favour, four against and three abstained.[3] Aust was elected head of the AfD delegation in the European Parliament on the same day[4].

In 1961 Norberto Bobbio argued that the phrase "legal positivism" is used with three different meanings, referring to different and largely independent doctrines, which he called "positivism as a way of approaching the study of law" (methodological legal positivism), "positivism as a theory or conception of law" (theoretical legal positivism) and "positivism as an ideology of justice" (Ideological legal positivism).^[5][6]

Methodological legal positivism is a value-free, scientific approach to the study of law and, at the same time, is a way of conceiving the object of legal knowledge. It is characterised by a sharp distinction between real law and ideal law (or "law as fact" and "law as value", "law as it is" and "law as it should be") and by the conviction that legal science should be concerned with the former. Theoretical legal positivism is a cluster of theories about the nature of law related to a "statalist" conception of law.^[7] They include the theory that the law is a set of commands issued by the sovereign authority, whose binding force is guaranteed by the threat of sanctions (coercitive imperativism); a theory of legal sources, in which statute law enjoys supremacy (legalism); a theory of the legal order, which is supposed to be a complete and coherent system of norms, free of gaps (lacunae) and contradictions (antinomies); and a theory legal interpretation, conceived of as a pure act of cognition: a mechanical and logical activity. Finally, ideological legal positivism is defined by Bobbio as the normative theory according to which positive law ought to be obeyed.^[8][7][9]

(ethical formalism, ethical legalism),

that is, as an ideology about the obedience due to positive law qua positive

law.

iii) Ideological positivism. In the third place, LP is an ideology, that is a normative stance according to which positive law ought to be obeyed – there is a (moral or political) obligation to obey the law. On the footsteps of Hobbes, justice is identified

with positive law.

a complete and coherent system, free of loopholes and conflicting regulations

Narrow theoretical positivism

conceives of law as a coercive normative order, legal norms being

imperatives (prescriptions making behaviours non-optional but either

obligatory or forbidden) backed up by coercive sanctions (coercitive imperativism).

It considers legislation as what is, and should be, the paramount

source among legal sources (legalism). It claims legal systems (legal

orders) to be ‘logically’ complete (gapless) and coherent (antinomiesproof)

normative sets (logical completeness and coherence). It accounts

for the judicial application of law as a ‘mechanical task’, where judges,

having come to know both the law (by means of interpretation as a pure act

of cognition) and the facts of the individual case, identify the individual

norm (the decision) to be issued by means of a logical inference.

Bobbio considers narrow theoretical positivism a ‘naïf’ theory of

^[8][9];

Chiassoni P. From Savigny to Linguistic Analysis: Legal Positivism through Bobbio’s Eyes. In: Spaak T, Mindus P, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Legal Positivism. Cambridge Companions to Law. Cambridge University Press; 2021:325-348.^[9]

(ii) Theoretical positivism. In the second place, LP is a theory of law, namely the

theory generally shared by 19th century jurists,6 which includes a number of substantive

theses, such as the following:

(a) law is the set of commands enacted by a sovereign authority;

(b) the binding force of such commands is guaranteed by the threat of sanctions;

(c) law is a complete and consistent system, in such a way that no gaps and no

normative conflicts exist;

(d) legal interpretation is a cognitive enterprise consisting in ascertaining the will of

the legislative authority;

(e) the application of law is an eminently logical activity consisting in (ascertaining

facts and) inferring individual prescriptions from general rules (“All thieves ought to be

punished. X is a thief. Hence X is to be punished”).

(iii) Ideological positivism. In the third place, LP is

of legal knowledge. "Theoretical" positivism is in fact a cluster of theories about the nature of law, which are all somehow related to a "statalist" concep- tion of law. These theories include: an imperative theory of law, which the key concepts are the ones of sovereignty (in relation the foundation of the legal system) and command (in relation to the definition of norm); a theory of legal sources, in which statute law is the supreme source; a theory of the legal system, which supposed to be a coherent and comprehensive whole; and a theory legal interpretation, conceived of as a merely mechanical and logical enterprise.

Legal positivism as a methodological attitude is a value-free approach to law.

""Methodological" positivism is a peculiar way to conceive of the function of legal knowledge and, at the same time, of the object of legal knowledge itself. The legal positivist is characterised by commitment to a value-free, scientific approach in studying actual law. From this important methodological tenet it thus follows that there is a sharp distinction between "actual" law and "ideal" "natural" law: between law as a fact and law as a value; a distinction which aims to point to the former as the proper (indeed only) object of legal knowledge.

While rejecting legal positivism as an ideology and as a theory of law, Bobbio stated that he embraced legal positivism as an approach to the study of law. As early as 1967, however, he recognised a crisis in legal positivism as an approach to the study of law, due to the "wearing away of certain convictions that had made it possible to mark a clear distinction between law as it is and law as it ought to be."^[10]

"In 1961, the outstanding Italian legal philosopher Norberto Bobbio introduced an unsurpassed analysis of legal positivism (LP) [1]. In his view, the phrase “LP” is actually used in juristic literature with different meanings, referring to three different and logically independent doctrines (Bobbio 1961, part II; see also Bobbio 1965, 101 ff.) [2]."^[8]

Bobbio, Norberto (1966) [1961]. Il positivismo giuridico. Torino: Giappichelli.

Bobbio, Norberto (1965). Giusnaturalismo e positivismo giuridico. Milano: Comunità.

Bobbio, Norberto (2014) [1965]. Giusnaturalismo e positivismo giuridico (in Italian). Roma-Bari: Laterza. ISBN 978-88-581-1420-9.

"Methodological positivism. In the first place, LP is a methodological attitude, namely a value-free approach to law. The philosophy of (legal) science of LP circumscribes the object of (legal) science to the law as it actually is, excluding any inquiry about the law as it ought to be. Legal cognition is expository, not censorial, jurisprudence [1].

(ii) Theoretical positivism. In the second place, LP is a theory of law, namely the theory generally shared by 19th century jurists [1], which includes a number of substantive theses, such as the following:

(a) law is the set of commands enacted by a sovereign authority;

(b) the binding force of such commands is guaranteed by the threat of sanctions;

(c) law is a complete and consistent system, in such a way that no gaps and no normative conflicts exist;

(d) legal interpretation is a cognitive enterprise consisting in ascertaining the will of the legislative authority;

(e) the application of law is an eminently logical activity consisting in (ascertaining facts and) inferring individual prescriptions from general rules (“All thieves ought to be punished. X is a thief. Hence X is to be punished”).

Ideological positivism. In the third place, LP is an ideology, that is a normative stance according to which positive law ought to be obeyed – there is a (moral or political) obligation to obey the law. On the footsteps of Hobbes, justice is identified with positive law".^[8]

[1] Conceptually unsurpassed, in my view, although disputable from the historical point of view. See the criticisms of Chiassoni 2013a and 2016. See also Ruiz Manero 2015.

[2] Bobbio’s distinction was accepted and used by Grzegorczyk, Michaut, Troper (eds.) 1992, part 2, in a large anthology of positivistic authors.

Grzegorczyk, Ch., Michaut, F., Troper, M. (eds.), 1992, Le positivisme juridique, L.G.D.J., Paris

"In Giusnaturalismo e positivismo giuridico Bobbio distinguished three ways of understanding legal positivism—as an ideology, as a theory of law, and as an approach to the study of law—and declared that only in this last sense did he espouse legal positivism, as a value-neutral and scientific way to go about studying law. At the Pavia roundtable, however, he remarked that even in this last sense legal positivism was heading into crisis, a crisis he ascribed to the “wearing away of certain convictions that had made it possible to mark a clear distinction between law as it is and law as it ought to be, and so a separation between, on the one hand, de facto law—laid down once and for all, and preconstituted, so to speak, before the jurist observing it—and, on the other hand, an ideal, potential, or possible law that should rise atop positive law without thereby overshadowing it.” In light of these remarks, Bobbio closed his talk saying, “I must recognize that legal positivism is in crisis not only as an ideology and a theory, as I myself have already conceded, but also as an approach to the study of law” (Leoni 1967, 73; my translation)."^[10]

• Faralli, Carla (2016). "Legal Philosophy in Italy in the 20th Century". A Treatise of Legal Philosophy and General Jurisprudence. Volume 12. Legal Philosophy in the Twentieth Century: The Civil Law World. Tome 1: Language Areas. Dordrecht: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-1479-3. ISBN 978-94-007-1478-6.

""Methodological" positivism is a peculiar way to conceive of the function of legal knowledge and, at the same time, of the object of legal knowledge itself. The legal positivist is characterised by commitment to a value-free, scientific approach in studying actual law. From this important methodological tenet it thus follows that there is a sharp distinction between "actual" law and "ideal" "natural" law: between law as a fact and law as a value; a distinction which aims to point to the former as the proper (indeed only) object of legal knowledge. "Theoretical" positivism is in fact a cluster of theories about the nature of law, which are all somehow related to a "statalist" concep- tion of law. These theories include: an imperative theory of law, which the key concepts are the ones of sovereignty (in relation the foundation of the legal system) and command (in relation to the definition of norm); a theory of legal sources, in which statute law is the supreme source; a theory of the legal system, which supposed to be a coherent and comprehensive whole; and a theory legal interpretation, conceived of as a merely mechanical and logical enterprise. "Ideological" positivism is a theory about the obligation to obey the law, according to which existing laws (or established statutes, in so far as this theory incorporates the "theoretical" one) deserve moral compliance from the citizens; people, in other words, have a moral duty to obey positive law. This doctrine, which would be more correct to define as "moral positivism" or "ethical legalism", meets in two different versions. Firstly, a moderate one, according to which the very existence of legal regulations (apart from the actual content of single norms) satisfies important demands of order, social peace, certainty. Secondly, a more extreme version, which holds that the law is not merely regarded as a means to fulfil desirable values, but as a value in itself: positive law is, as such"^[7],

"If we look at ordinary usage the first approach to the notion of legal positivism seems to refer to what legal positivism is not: legal positivism is often defined as a doctrine that is in radical - and polemical - contradiction to natural law theories. Legal postivism, as opposed to natural law theories, assumes that "there is no other law but positive law": the existence or - more technically - the validity of law rests upon the mere fact of its being enacted by a historically determined human legislator (...): ius quia iussum"^[7]

"the existence of laws is not dependent on their satisfying any particular moral values of universal application to all legal systems; the existence of laws depends then upon their being established through decisions of human beings in society". N. MacCormick, "Law, Morality and Positivism", in N. MacCormick and 0. Weinberger, An Institutional Theory of Law. New Approaches to Legal Positivism (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1986), pp. 127-144, at pp. 128-129.

Different ways to characterise positivistic conceptions are to be found in H. L. A. Hart, "Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals, in Harvard Law Review I (1958), pp. 593 ff.; and J. Raz, The Authority of Law. Essays on Law and Morality (Oxford: Clarendon, 1979), pp. 37-52

Sometimes the term 'positivist' is used in a pejorative sense to condemn a doctrine according to which the law is always clear (legal formalism) and, however unjust, must be strictly enforced by officials and obeyed by subjects (so-called 'ideological positivism').^[11][7][8] When identified with legal formalism, legal positivism is opposed to legal realism. Legal positivism, understood as formalism, believes that in most cases the law provides definite guidance to its subjects and to judges; legal realists, on the other hand, often embrace rule scepticism, claiming that legal rules are indeterminate and do not constrain judicial discretion^[12]. However, both legal positivism and legal realism believe that law is a human construct. Moreover, most realists have adopted some version of the positivist doctrine of the separation of law and morality.^[13] According to Brian Leiter, the view that positivism and realism are incompatible positions is probably largely due to Hart's critique of legal realism,^[14] but American legal realists were "tacit legal positivists" who acknowledged that all law stems from authoritative sources such as statutes and precedents.^[15] Most legal realists denied the existence of natural law, had a scientific approach to the law based on the distinction between describing and evaluating the law, and denied the existence of an objective (moral or political) obligation to obey the law; they therefore qualified as legal positivists.^[8]

"The minimal content of the separation thesis consists in the claim what the law is does not necessarily, or conceptually, depend on moral considerations about what the law ought to be in the relevant circumstances. controversy is about an additional, extended version of the Inclusive legal positivism maintains that moral and other evaluative tions may determine, under certain circumstances, what the contingent matter, depending on the particular social rules of recognition ticular legal systems, at particular times (and, perhaps, depending itself in certain cases). The so-called exclusive legal positivism dependence of law on moral considerations. It maintains that moral and other evaluative considerations about what the law ought to be in the relevant circum- stances cannot, as a conceptual matter, determine what the law is. This debate between the two main versions of contemporary legal positivism is very intricate, but it will not form part of my arguments here, and I will largely ignore it.'o For our present purposes, the minimal content of the separation thesis, as formu- lated above, will do."^[16]

"Quite explicitly, Campbell does not purport to argue for the truth of legal positivism as a theory about law. He argues for a moral-political stance that would require a certain vision of law and legal practice that accords with what he takes legal positivism to be. In short, Ethical Positivism is a political theory"

Scholars who oppose legal realism to legal positivism sometimes have Scandinavian legal realism in mind, particularly Olivecrona and Ross.^[8] Although Olivecrona was critical of legal positivism, which he identified with the voluntarist theory of legal norms held by nineteenth-century jurists, he shared methodological legal positivism and saw legal science as an empirical, value-free enterprise. Also Ross embraces methodological legal positivism and on that basis criticises Kelsen's concept of validity as binding force and Hart's notion of internal point of view.

1. To resolve matters unsuitable for public discussion for privacy, legal, or similar reasons;
2. To approve and remove access to (i) CheckUser and Oversight tools and (ii) mailing lists maintained by the Arbitration Committee.

To handle requests (other than self-requests) for removal of administrative tools

To hear appeals from blocked, banned, or otherwise restricted users

serious conduct disputes the community has been unable to resolve;

decide sui principali conflitti comportamentali che la comunità non è riuscita a risolvere in altro modo. Interviene solo nei conflitti che gli vengono sottoposti e per i quali altri metodi di risoluzione sono falliti;

 Done See [1] and [2]. Gitz (talk) (contribs) 08:52, 19 January 2024 (UTC)

Why is Wikipedia losing contributors

AE Apr 2022 (Elinruby/Azov Battalion)

AE Apr 2022 (Anonimu)

RSN May 2022 (re Denisova)

RSN May 2022 (rape as a weapon of war)

RfC May 2022 (TASS)

ANI June 2022 (Volunteer Marek and Gitz6666)

AE June 2022 (Mhorg)

RfC July 2022 (Missile attacks on Donetsk People's Republic)

AE July 2022 (Gitz)

AE July 2022 (Volunteer Marek)

RSN July 2022 (Denisova)

3RR Aug 2022 (Gitz reported by MVBW)

AE Aug 2022 (MVBW)

RfC Aug 2022 (military objectives near civilians and Stara Krasnianka attack)

AE Sep 2022 (Jargo Nautilus)

RfC Oct 2022 (killings of suspected collaborators)

ANI Nov 2022 (Masebrock, Gitz6666, Volunteer Marek, Elinruby re Torture in Ukraine)

AN Dec 2022 (Vita Zaverukha)

AfD Dec 2022 Vita Zaverukha

ORN Dec 2022 (Sexual violence)

NPOVN Dec 2022 (Sexual violence)

AE Jan 2023 (Michael60634)

BLPN Jan 2023 (Katchanovski)

ANI Jan 2023 (Boomerang for Gitz6666)

Russo-Ukraine correspondence (2022-2023)

T-ban lifted

Antisemitism in Poland#Article sourcing expectations

User:Ealdgyth/Holocaust_in_occupied_Poland_arb_com_evidence

lists.wikimedia.org

increasing the temperature of the topic area as sanctionable behaviour

The Signpost, 19 June 2023: "English WP editor glocked after BLP row on Italian 'pedia" + Talk

How to find images for your articles

The only guess I can make is that you are suggesting that Tagishsimon, myself and possibly Camelia (the third angle?) have somehow coordinated for some obscure, fishy purpose. If that's what you mean to say, you've just lost 1 euro. I've never interacted with Tagishsimon before and AFIK Camelia was not even aware of this conversation until 7 December.

Since Pequod didn't answer Tagishsimon's and my question, I'll do it myself.

Camelia.boban has been indefinitely blocked for the following comment, which I translated into English. I underlined the sentence that was interpreted as a personal attack:

"I didn't want Patafisik to open this discussion [on notification to WikiDonne of AfDs involving female BLP subjects] because I knew how it would turn out. But I must admit that I am glad that she opened it and I thank everyone who took part in it. Eventually, the discussion ended up being a 'truth-telling session'. I would summarise the various opinions expressed in this way: WikiDonne has the vocation and capacity to edit the existing articles and write new ones, but not to participate in AfDs and possibly to advocate for the articles to be kept, since one cannot rule out bias and WP:CANVASS would be intrinsic, given that it belongs to the nature of women to support each other and get hysterical when an article about a woman is deleted. This shows that for some editors WikiDonne – because of what it does, because of its name, because of its goals, because it is also a user group and an association – will always be an outsider on itwiki, 'an external project hosted by the domain'. And since WikiDonne does what all the others do within the Wikimedia movement (whose structure is ignored here, and of which itwiki itself is a constitutive element, being itwiki also a project hosted by others), I suppose you will make the same assessment of Women in Red, Wikimujeres, Les sans pagEs, etc. (in addition to the aforementioned WikiAfrica, which was named perhaps to broaden the view), 'entities that have their centre of gravity outside WP'. For me, this is where the discussion peacefully ends."

Immediately after this comment, Camelia was blocked for one week for personal attacks. The blocking admin explained that "The attack is indiscriminate on the entire community and the words you used were very harsh". A few days later another admin filed a utente problematico report (which is a community discussion on behaviour close to enwiki's AN/I) and Camelia was indefinitely blocked.

Camelia registered her account in 2007, founded WikiDonne user group in 2016 and was an active user, with around 45,000 edits on it.wiki and 20,000 on Commons. She had already been blocked two times for non-existing canvassing and personal attacks almost as serious as this one.

In my view, Camelia's block is the result of two concurrent causes. First, the extreme sensitivity and aggressiveness of it.wiki admins, who are mostly men. They feel personally attacked at the mere idea of being suspected of sexism. Second, the block stemmed from a genuine editorial conflict over the nature and purpose of WikiDonne. This was made clear by Civvi's comments in both the notification discussion and the utente problematico discussion. Her criticism was purely editorial and was enthusiastically received by all the male admins as final proof that they were right to be angry with Camelia. But there was no justification for turning a reasonable editorial disagreement into a dispute over behaviour.

What is the reliability of Libero (newspaper)?

• Option 1: Generally reliable
• Option 2: Additional considerations
• Option 3: Generally unreliable
• Option 4: Deprecate

• Option 2 or Option 3.
• Yesterday at Italy–Russia relations I stumbled upon the Italian diplomacy failed to provide valid support to resolve the crisis with Ukraine and failed to avoid aggression against Ukraine. I checked the source, which is a 2022 article by Libero quoting the Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov about the shortcomings of Italian and Western diplomacy. I removed the content mentioning that "Libero is a biased and/or unreliable source, which should not be used for any kind of controversial or sensitive political assessment". I then noticed that Libero has never been the subject of community scrutiny at RS/N and that it is currently cited in 65 WP articles (mostly to support purely factual and not controversial content).

Libero is most famous for its headlines, e.g. "Islamic bastards" (following the November 2015 Paris attacks), "After misery, they bring disease" ("they" refers to migrants), "More potatoes, less mimosas" (on the International Women's Day, which in Italy is celebrated with mimosas; "potatoes" here means pussy), "Matteo Renzi and Maria Elena Boschi don't fuck" [3], and in 2019 also "Revenues and GDP decrease, but gays increase" [4]. The 2017 headline "Hot potato" (which in Italian also means "Hot pussy") earned the directors of Libero Vittorio Feltri and Pietro Senaldi a conviction for libel against the mayor of Rome Virginia Raggi [5].

While WP:HEADLINES provides us some protection against all this, IMHO these headlines are indicative of poor journalistic quality, which is confirmed by a series of convictions for libel and other journalistic shortcoming [6][7][8][9][10]

. E.g. in 2020 Pietro Senaldi and Libero got a conviction for libel against the National Association of Italian Partisans because of a couple of articles about "Today's partisans, without fascists but full of money" [11][12]. In 2019 the European Court of Human Rights ruled that "the Court agrees with the Government that the applicant [Libero's director Alessandro Sallusti [it] in 2007] failed to observe the ethics of journalism by reporting information without first checking its veracity" (however, the criminal sanction imposed on Sallusti was deemed disproportionate by the Court) [13][14]. In 2003 the director Vittorio Feltri was reprimanded by the Journalists' professional body for having published shocking images of child pornography [15] and in 2007 the deputy director Renato Farina was expelled from the Journalists' professional body and sentenced to six months imprisonment for having published a fake dossier alleging that Romano Prodi (at the time President of the European Commission) had authorised CIA's extraordinary renditions in Europe [16].

As a writer, she made her debut in 1995 with Donne, nient’altro che donne. In 2014, her novel Una vita altrove was a finalist for the Rome Prize. A collection of short stories, Miraggi, published by Castelvecchi in 2018, was translated in French and published in Belgium in 2021.^[17][18] The 2022 novel In famiglia by La nave di Teseo [it] won the Premium International Florence Seven Stars for fiction.^[19] In 2023 she published the novel, Un insolito trio.^[20]

Between 2022 and 2023 Basile wrote several articles for Il Fatto quotidiano under the pseudonym "Ipazia", some of which were criticised as pro-Russian.^[21][22] In one of them she blamed Ukraine for the worsening of Russia–Ukraine relations and accused the Ukrainian government of having "sent 250,000 young people to their death at the behest of NATO". Her views sparkled controversy in July 2023, when she disclosed her identity behind Ipazia.^[23][24][25] Following the Hamas attack on Israel in October 2023, she commented on the situation on La7 television channel, taking a critical stance towards the Israeli government and the Western countries.^[26][27]

How about the following text? It uses two secondary RSs (New York Times Nov 2019 and ITV News Feb 2020) and one primary and non-independent source (letter in The Lancet, July 2020) making it clear that the latter is "correspondence". I think the letter in The Lancet falls under WP:PRIMARY (reputably published + statement of fact) and if we drop it we are left with no source about the campaing lasting until at the least July 2020. If you agree, I would insert it in Julian Assange#Imprisonment in the UK following the sentence "On 17 February 2020, Australian MPs Andrew Wilkie and George Christensen visited..."

Nemo judex in causa sua (or nemo judex in sua causa) (which, in Latin, literally means "no-one is judge in his own cause") is a principle of Roman law natural justice that no person can judge a case in which they have an interest.^[1][2] In many jurisdictions the rule is very strictly applied to any appearance of a possible bias, even if there is actually none: "Justice must not only be done, but must be seen to be done".^[3]

This principle may also be called:

• nemo judex idoneus in propria causa est
• nemo judex in parte sua
• nemo judex in re sua
• nemo debet esse judex in propria causa
• in propria causa nemo judex

The legal effect of a breach of natural justice is normally to stop the proceedings and render any judgment invalid; it should be quashed or appealed, but may be remitted for a valid re-hearing.

The phrase is credited to Sir Edward Coke in the seventeenth century,^[4] but has also been attested as early as 1544.^[5] The principle also belongs to the Roman law tradition and is enshrined in the Corpus Juris Civilis (Code 3.5.1 and Digest 5.1.15-17): an imperial decree of 376 establishes that "No one shall decide his own case or interpret the law for himself" (neminem sibi esse iudicem vel ius sibi dicere debere) and theDigest reports that, according to Julians, "It is unfair for someone to be the judge of their own affairs" (iniquum est aliquem suae rei iudicem fieri).^[6]

From these Roman and canonical sources, the maxim found its way into modern times and can be found in Martin Luther's Whether Soldiers, Too, Can Be Saved of 1526 (Niemand sol sein selbs Richter seyn, "No one should be their own judge")^[7], in Ulrich Zwingli's In Exodum of 1527^[8] and in Jean Bodin's The Six Books of the Republic of 1576.^[9]

Edward Coke noted in the conclusions of the famous Bonham's Case (1610) that the College of Physicians could not be a judge in a case to which it is a party,^[10][11] and since then the rule against bias is credited as a rule of natural justice in the common law tradition as well as a principle of constitutionalism.^[12] This principle has been invoked by the United States Supreme Court in a number of cases and in different contexts, including the 1798 case Calder v. Bull ("a law that makes a man a Judge in his own cause [would be] contrary to the great first principles of the social contract"

the 1974 case Arnett v. Kennedy ("we might start with a first principle: '[N]o man shall be a judge in his own cause.' Bonham's Case, 8 Co. 114a, 118a, 77 Eng. Rep. 646, 652 (1610)").

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de:Volkstum Volkstum

Volkstum is the nature or character of a people as it is expressed in its life and culture.[1] The term is used descriptively and normatively: On the one hand, it can designate the entire life expressions of a people or an ethnic minority as they are empirically perceptible. On the other hand, it can denote a folk spirit or folk character through which a group distinguishes itself from others, excludes or devalues them. The term was coined by German nationalists in the context of the wars of liberation as a contrast to the ideals of the French Revolution, universal human rights, and was a central concept of the völkisch movement. It was used by the National Socialists as a justification for their Volkstumspolitik to expel and exterminate the resident population in the conquered territories in East-Central and Eastern Europe.

Eighteenth century

While the kings and magnates of Poland tolerated the Jews as a useful source of revenues and services, the city burghers loathed them as competitors in trade and crafts. Exacerbated by the Church, hostility towards Jews was also widespread among peasants, especially when their lords had placed them under the supervision of Jewish bailiffs and leaseholders.^[13] Unlike in other European countries, in the Polish Commonwealth Jews were not regarded as an entirely foreign or illegitimate component of society; alongside an array of overlapping taxes, prohibitions, quotas and other burdens and humiliations, they were also granted certain privileges and warranties by the law of the land, to the point that they were "virtually one of the established estates of the realm".^[14] However, they were constantly exposed to the arbitrary exercise of power by the rulers and occasionally subjected to outright persecution.^[15]

Their status was the subject of political debate at the Great Sejm (1788–1792). Along with the usual themes of anti-Jewish press, there were also some tendencies in favour of greater integration of Jews into Polish society, which, however, never went so far as to consider the possibility of their emancipation, such as that recently decreed by the National Assembly in 1791 revolutionary France.^[16]. Scipione Piattoli spearheaded a plan for bold reforms to improve the condition of the Jews that ultimately failed in the face of strenuous opposition from the middle-class burgher estate.^[17]

Polish Jews in 18th century Poland were "overwhelmingly of a type and a class and a culture that, even as early as the end of the eighteenth century, had begun to diminish in parts at least of central Europe and in a marked and accelerating fashion in the west. They were at one and the same time in much poorer, meaner, and humiliating circumstances and, by virtue of their greater numbers and the fact that they lived, typically, in denser and more coherent communities than any in the west, much more distinctively and unselfconsciously a people apart than their brethren elsewhere (...) Not until well into the nineteenth century did substantial numbers—still a minority—speak Polish or Russian or German. Great numbers (not all) read and wrote Hebrew. Greater numbers still read, wrote, and, most important of all, spoke Yiddish, having carried this essentially German tongue to Poland (...). They were generally more observant of the niceties of Jewish ritual than were their brethren in the west, more respectful of their rabbis, more inward looking. They were, for these reasons, very much more obviously alien, a feature that was the more marked for their belonging almost exclusively to the lower economic orders".^[18]

They were at one and the same time in much poorer, meaner, and humiliating circumstances and, by virtue of their greater numbers and the fact that they lived, typically, in denser and more coherent communities than any in the west, much more distinctively and unselfconsciously a people apart than their brethren elsewhere.

Their status was the subject of political debate in the Grand Sejm. Alongside the usual themes of the anti-Jewish press, there were also some tendencies in favour of greater integration of the Jews into Polish society, which, however, never went so far as to consider the possibility of their emancipation, such as that recently deliberated in revolutionary France.

Along with the themes of anti-Jewish press, there were also some tendencies in favour of greater integration of the Jews into Polish society, which, however, never went so far as to consider the possibility of their emancipation, which had recently been decided upon by revolutionary France.

Unlike in other European countries, in Poland Jews were not regarded as an entirely foreign or illegitimate component of society; alongside a series of overlapping taxes, prohibitions, quotas and other burdens and humiliations, the Jews were also granted certain formally recognised privileges by the law of the land, to the point that they were "virtually one of the established estates of the realm".^[14] However, they were constantly exposed to the arbitrary exercise of power by the rulers and occasionally subjected to outright persecution.

Morgenthau Report The purpose of the mission was to investigate "alleged Polish pogroms" and the "treatment of the Jewish people" in Poland. The Mission identified eight major incidents in the years 1918–1919, and estimated the number of victims at between 200 and 300 Jews, including the Lwów pogrom (1918)

Vital, David (2001). A people apart: A political history of the Jews in Europe, 1789-1939. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-169762-3. OCLC 801846856.

Paulsson, Steven (2005). "Poland (1918-1989)". In Levy, Richard S. (ed.). Antisemitism: a historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 553–556. ISBN 1-85109-444-X. OCLC 60777788.

• Paulsson, Steven (2005). "Poland since 1989". In Levy, Richard S. (ed.). Antisemitism: a historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 557. ISBN 1-85109-444-X. OCLC 60777788.

• Bartoszewski, Władysław T., ed. (2004). Poles and Jews: perceptions and misperceptions. Polin. Studies in Polish Jewry, vol. 4. Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. ISBN 978-1-909821-55-2. OCLC 761405337.
• Blobaum, Robert (2005). Antisemitism and its opponents in modern Poland. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8969-5. OCLC 57557379.
• Cala, Alina (2018). Jew. The Eternal Enemy? The History of Antisemitism in Poland. Polish Studies. Transdisciplinary Perspectives, Vol. 22. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-653-06331-8. OCLC 1080486354.
• Engel, David (1998). "Patterns Of Anti-Jewish Violence In Poland, 1944-1946". Yad Vashem Studies. 26: 43–85.
• Grabowski, Jan (2013). Hunt for the Jews: betrayal and murder in German-occupied Poland. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-01087-2. OCLC 868951735.
• Hagen, William W. (1996). "Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland". The Journal of Modern History. 68 (2): 351–381. JSTOR 2124667. Retrieved 2023-03-22.
• Hundert, Gershon David (1997-10-01). "Poland: Paradisus Judaeorum". Journal of Jewish Studies. 48 (2): 335–348. doi:10.18647/2003/jjs-1997. ISSN 0022-2097.
• Hundert, Gershon David, ed. (1997). Jews in early modern Poland. Polin. Studies in Polish Jewry, vol. 10. London: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. ISBN 978-1-909821-61-3. OCLC 646957619.
• Polonsky, Antony (2012). The Jews in Poland and Russia, vol. III, 1914 to 2008. Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. ISBN 978-1-874774-64-8. OCLC 149092612.
• Polonsky, Antony; Węgrzynek, Hanna; Żbikowski, Andrzej, eds. (2018). New directions in the history of the Jews in the Polish lands. Academic Studies Press and by the POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews. ISBN 83-949149-0-X. OCLC 1005199886.
• Schatz, Jaff (1991). The generation : the rise and fall of the Jewish communists of Poland. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07136-0. OCLC 22984393.
• Schneider, Anna Sommer (2013). "The Catholic Church, Radio Maryja, and the Question of Antisemitism in Poland". Resurgent Antisemitism: Global Perspectives. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-00878-7. JSTOR j.ctt16gzbgz.13. Retrieved 2023-03-22.
• Zimmerman, Joshua D., ed. (2003). Contested memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and its aftermath. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-3538-7. OCLC 54961680.
• Zimmerman, Joshua D. (2015). The Polish underground and the Jews, 1939-1945. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-31841-6. OCLC 910935082.

Andrzej Żbikowski writes that Chodakiewicz, along with Jan Żaryn, leads the "nationalist/national democratic camp" of Polish historians, affiliated with Fronda and Glaukopis, "a publication that has arisen mainly to rehabilitate unconditionally the wartime activities of the [nationalist] Narodowe Siły Zbrojne (NSZ)." Chodakiewicz's writing, according to Żbikowski, is characterized by selective usage of examples, justification of Poles' negative attitudes towards Jews during the war, and a lack of empathy with Jewish victims.^[19]

The first news about the Auschwitz camp began to reach London through the Polish Underground State from late 1940.^[20] In September 1941, Churchill was informed of German radio intercepts gibing figures on the number of deaths at Auschwitz.^[21] From May 1942, the camp was modified to include a site where Jews were brought from all over Europe specifically for extermination, and the Underground leaders in Poland were made aware of this by August 1942 at the latest.^[22] In June 1942 the Polish government-in-exile in London had already reported to Western public opinion that Hitler in Poland had begun to realise his plans to annihilate the Jews of Europe,^[23] which was followed by simillar statements to the press by the British minister of information, Brendan Bracken, in July 1942.^[24] In September 1942 the principal paper of the Home Army, Biuletyn Informacyjny, published an article about Auschwitz specifically, in which the activities of the death camp were described in detail, including the information that over 1,000 Jews a day were being killed in the newly installed gas chambers.^[25] Finally, the news that Jews were being killed on a mass scale in Auschwitz reached the West in November 1942, when it was published in the New York Times,^[26][27] soon followed by the United Nations declaration on the "bestial policy of cold-blooded extermination" of the Jews pursued by Nazi Germany, in

On 17 December 1942, Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations

In March 1943, General Rowecki, commander of the Home Army, informed the Allies in London that about 640,000 people had alreadt been killed in Auschwitz alone, including 66,000 ethnic Poles and 540,000 Jews from various European countries.^[28]

The "Background" and "Allied intelligence on Auschwitz-Birkenau" sections are way too long. I think we should replece them with something shorter. I'm working on such a text. My remarks on the existing text:

1. First paragraph starting with The Polish government-in-exile in London first reported crimes in the Auschwitz complex to the western public in 1941. Depending on how one defines "crimes", this is either wrong or misleading. The Polish government-in-exile first reported to Western public opinion that Hitler in Poland had begun to exterminate the Jews in June 1942; information about Auschwitz extermination camp were published in the Home Army's Biuletyn in September 1942. The paragraph is entirely based on generically quoted primary sources.
2. All the following paragraphs seem at first well sourced and well written, but they don't deal with Auschwitz at all - Auschwitz is not even mentioned. If not duplicated, this content could be moved to Karski's reports, I guess, unless other editors have better ideas.
3. The section "Allied intelligence on Auschwitz-Birkenau" is overly-detailed for the purposes of this article. It should either be merged with Auschwitz_concentration_camp#Camp_resistance,_flow_of_information or made a self-standing article Allied intelligence on Auschwitz-Birkenau.

Re this edit summary [17], I encountered some difficulties in adding Melzer's content to the pertinent section Between antisemitism and support for Zionism and Jewish state in Palestine. Since the very title, the section presents an opposition between, on the one side, antisemitism and, on the other, support for Zionism and Jewish state. I haven't yet finished reviewing the sources, but with regard to support for Jewish emigration to Palestine, Melzer makes it very clear that this policy was a consequence of antisemitism rather than an expression of friendship for the Jewish people (note that this possibly false opposition between antisemitism and support for Zionism might also affect and unbalance the lead). Anyway, without removing text and sources that I had not yet checked I couldn't include much of Melzer's content, apart from this replacement. It seems to me that the section on antisemitism in interwar Poland would benefit from some structure, which it currently lacks, e.g. according to the following outline:

1. Description of antisemitism. Melzer has a chapter on the economic campaign against the Jews, one on anti-Jewish violence, one on agitation and violence in the universities, and one on the Kosher-slaughtering ban. We could also provide some chronological ordering to this part and explain that a turning point were the political changes after Pilsudski's death. Some content and sources are already included in the article; more can be found in Racism in Poland#Jewish people. One or two sentences should suffice.
2. Causes of raising antisemitism. Here we could rely on Polonsky and other sources; I haven't yet found any scholarly mention to a correlation between raising antisemitism and Jewish migration flaws from Russia, which was the "core thesis" of the section. A delicate issue is whether Polish interwar antisemitism was merely an expression of wider European trends or whether there was something peculiar to it. The lead seems to expose the first theory (. Antisemitism was a growing problem throughout Europe in those years) and we also had some unsupported text on this in the body, which I removed (here). However, the source now quoted in the lead to support this claim (Hagen 1996) actually argues that there was something peculiar to the "new" German and Polish antisemitism of the 1930s: verbatim, in no other lands of modem Europe did the Jewish question in politics attain a more fateful significance than in Germany and Poland (the reason, he argues, were the economic appetites of the Christian middle classes, which basically wanted to kill them all and take their stuff, as they were "eager to reap the rewards of capitalist modernization")

The "pervasive anti-Semitic atmosphere" that followed Piłsudski's death in 1935^[29] prompted the government to promote the mass emigration of Jews from the country, but to no avail: the British government refused to lift immigration restrictions to Palestine and identify alternative destination.^[30]

In 1939 at the start of World War II, Poland was partitioned between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union (see Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact). One-fifth of the Polish population perished during World War II; the 3,000,000 Polish Jews murdered in The Holocaust, who constituted 90% of Polish Jewry, made up half of all Poles killed during the war.^[31][32] Although the Holocaust occurred largely in German-occupied Poland, it was orchestrated by the Nazis. Collaboration by individual Poles has been described as sporadic, although the topic has been a subject of renewed scholarly interest.^[33][34] Examples of Polish attitudes to German atrocities varied widely, from actively risking death in order to save Jewish lives,^[35] and passive refusal to inform on them, to indifference, blackmail,^[36] and in extreme cases, participation in pogroms such as the Jedwabne pogrom.^[37]

^[32]

^[33]

^[34]

^[36]

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