User:Curious Masaai/sandbox

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Acquiescence bias, also known as Agreement bias[1], is a category of response bias common to survey research[2] in which respondents to a have a tendency to select a positive response option[1][3] agree with all the questions or indicate a positive connotation disproportionately more frequently[2].[4][5] Respondents do so without considering the content[3] of the question or their 'true' preference[1]. Acquiescence is sometimes referred to as "yea-saying" and is the tendency of a respondent to agree with a statement when in doubt. Questions affected by Acquiescence bias take the following format: a stimulus in the form of a statement is presented, followed by 'agree/disagree,' 'yes/no' or 'true/false' response options[2][6]. For example, a respondent might be presented with the statement "gardening makes me feel happy," and would then be expected to select either 'agree' or 'disagree.' Such question formats are favoured by both survey designers and respondents because they are straightforward to produce and respond to[3][6]. This The bias is particularly prevalent is in the case of surveys or questionnaires that employ truisms as stimuli, such as: "It is better to give than to receive" or "Never a lender nor a borrower be".


Causes

Four stage model of the response process

Roger Tourangeau, Lance J. Rips, Kenneth Rasinski have developed a cognitive model that proposes four stages to the process of survey response selection. Each stage entails several specific cognitive processes. For example, the Comprehension stage entails paying attention to a question or instruction set . They propose that some cognitive processes are required in order to select an answer where as others serve as optional aids. A respondent's decision of which processes to employ from the model is determined by a number of influences, notably speed and precision.[7]

The four stages:

  • Comprehension- involves understanding the question and the information required.[7]
  • Retrieval (for factual questions)- involves remembering or calling to mind the appropriate information.[7]
  • Judgement (for factual questions)- involves the processing of recalled information to form judgements.[7]
  • Selection - choosing and communicating an answer. Two sets of processes have been proposed: translating a judgement into the scales provided, and revising the response based on factors such as 'consistency'.[7]

Response effects can arise at any stage of the response process.[7][1]

Agreeableness

A prominent psychological explanation attributes Acquiescence bias to social norms that encourage agreeable behaviour.[3][6] Evidence indicates that respondents approach surveys as though they are common conversations.[2] A consequence of this is that the conventions that govern conversations influence the interpretation of survey questions and responses to them. Accordingly, pressure to conform to such norms and conventions prompts people to agree with stimulus statements. Based on research into the "Big Five" personality traits, individuals are predisposed to agreeable behaviour to differing degrees.[3]

Perceived authority of the interviewer

An explanation favoured by sociologists is that Acquiescence bias is a product of the combination of the inclination to yield to the opinions of high authority individuals, and respondents' perception of the researcher/ interviewer as having higher authority.[6][2] According to this explanation, when selecting answers, a tendency to agree with statements made by the interviewer arrises from the respondent's intention of being polite or respectful.[3] In support of this, there is evidence that indicates that respondents of lower social status acquiesce more frequently that respondents of higher social status.[3] However, several studies have failed to replicate this finding.[3]

Satisficing

Acquiescence bias is proposed to be a product of 'satisficing' behaviour in this explanation. 'Satisficing' sees respondents select responses that are satisfactory or good enough, rather than engage in 'optimizing,' which produces best possible selection. This is done to conserve cognitive energy. Two forms of 'satisficing' have been proposed:

  • "Weak satisficing:" Respondents still execute all four stages of the 'Four stage model of the response process.' However, the stages are carried our less rigorously, which results in the output being satisfactory rather than more accurate. An example of weak satisficing is a respondent who doesn't search their memory as deeply as possible. This would lead to acquiescence if the respondent only scanned their memory for information supporting the positive response option.
  • "Strong satisficing:" Respondents implement a surface-level approach to answering the question by omitting the 'Retrieval' and 'Judgement' stages and only engaging in 'Comprehension' and 'Selection.' The respondent does not access any internal cognitive resources concerning the construct of interest for the question. A mechanism of selecting an appropriate answer may instead involve interpreting external cues such as question wording. Following the social convention of agreeing is one mechanism that would lead to Acquiescence bias.


Solutions


Balanced scales

This solution involves the modification of scales to include an equal ratio of positively and negatively framed items[1]. In other words, a particular construct is assessed using conflicting stimulus statements. For example, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale contains positively framed statement, such as 'I am satisfied with myself,' and negatively framed statements, such as 'I think I am no good at all.' While this technique has been shown to minimise a construct's relationship with Acquiescence bias, it is imperfect respondents continue to provide responses biased by Acquiescence

In such cases, the only effect of the technique is in moving individuals from the positive pole of the scale to the midpoint, which it is argued, achieves nothing.

Statistical correctives

The use of two techniques has been proposed to separate out Acquiescence bias from constructs of interest: Factor analysis, and Ipsatization.

Question choice

Some researchers have denounced the use of 'agree/disagree' scales (including 'yes/no' or 'true/false' variations) and call for the use of question types that aren't as susceptible to Acquiescence bias.

One alternative is 'Item specific' (IS) questions. Instead of providing a statement and 'agree/disagree' response option, the statement is transformed into a direct question and response options present a range that captures the extremities of an attitude or behaviour. For example, the statement 'I like the colour blue,' is transformed into 'do you like the colour blue?' with response options ranging from 'not at all' to 'very much.' Proponents of this solution reason that 'agree/disagree' scales demand excess cognitive resources. In many cases, a response to the direct question is a pre-requisite to providing an 'agree/disagree' choice; a person first responds to 'how often do I feel like starting a new hobby?' when presented with the statement 'I regularly feel like starting a new hobby.' There is, therefore, an additional process of translation onto the 'agree/disagree' scale, resulting in misguided inferences.

- Introduces systematic errors

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  1. ^ a b c d e Baron-Epel, Orna; Kaplan, Giora; Weinstein, Ruth; Green, Manfred S. (2010-10). "Extreme and acquiescence bias in a bi-ethnic population". European Journal of Public Health. 20 (5): 543–548. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckq052. ISSN 1464-360X. PMID 20439322. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  2. ^ a b c d e Kuru, Ozan; Pasek, Josh (2016-04-01). "Improving social media measurement in surveys: Avoiding acquiescence bias in Facebook research". Computers in Human Behavior. 57: 82–92. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.12.008. ISSN 0747-5632.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Krosnick, Jon A. (1999-02). "SURVEY RESEARCH". Annual Review of Psychology. 50 (1): 537–567. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.537. ISSN 0066-4308. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ^ Watson, Dorothy (1992). "Correcting for Acquiescent Response Bias in the Absence of a Balanced Scale: An Application to Class Consciousness". Sociological Methods & Research. 21 (1): 52–88. doi:10.1177/0049124192021001003.
  5. ^ "Moss, Simon. (2008). Acquiescence bias". Archived from the original on 2011-02-18. Retrieved 2010-07-19.
  6. ^ a b c d Pasek, Josh; Krosnick, Jon A. (2010-02-25). "Optimizing Survey Questionnaire Design in Political Science". The Oxford Handbook of American Elections and Political Behavior. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199235476.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199235476-e-3. Retrieved 2020-04-14.
  7. ^ a b c d e f Tourangeau, Roger; Rips, Lance J.; Rasinski, Kenneth (March 2000). "The Psychology of Survey Response". Cambridge Core. Retrieved 2020-04-14.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
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