Tolkien's poetry
Tolkien's poetry is extremely varied, including both the poems and songs of Middle-earth, and other verses written throughout his life. Over 60 poems are embedded in the text of The Lord of the Rings; there are others in The Hobbit and The Adventures of Tom Bombadil; and many more in his Middle-earth legendarium and other manuscripts which remained unpublished in his lifetime. In all he wrote at least 295 poems. Some are translations; others imitate different styles of medieval verse, including the elegiac, while others again are humorous or nonsensical. He stated that the poems embedded in his novels all had a dramatic purpose, supporting the narrative.
Commentators have noted that Tolkien's verse has long been overlooked, and almost never emulated by other fantasy writers; but that since the 1990s it has received scholarly attention. Scholarly analysis of Tolkien's verse shows that it is both varied and of high technical skill, making use of different metres and rarely-used poetic devices to achieve its effects.
Middle-earth
The Lord of the Rings
The Lord of the Rings contains at least 61 poems,[1] perhaps as many as 75 if variations and Tom Bombadil's sung speeches are included.[2] The verses include songs of many genres: for wandering, marching to war, drinking, and having a bath; narrating ancient myths, riddles, prophecies, and magical incantations; of praise and lament (elegy); some of these are found in Old English poetry.[3]
Michael Drout wrote that most of his students admitted to skipping the poems when reading The Lord of the Rings, something that Tolkien was aware of.[4] The Tolkien scholar Andrew Higgins wrote that Drout had made a "compelling case" for studying it. The poetry was, Drout wrote, essential for the fiction to work aesthetically and thematically; it added information not given in the prose; and it brought out characters and their backgrounds.[4] Kullmann and Siepmann note that all the poems follow in traditional genres, such as Old English charms, elegies, and riddles; Middle English nature songs; or English folklore songs for the nursery, the church, the tavern, the barrack room, festivals, or for activities such as walking. They comment that many of these poems are far from conventional lyrical poetry such as that of Wordsworth or Keats, since evoking "the poet's personal feelings" was not Tolkien's intention.[5] Tolkien indeed wrote in a letter that
the verses in The L.R. are all dramatic: they do not express the poor old professor's soul-searchings, but are fitted in style and contents to the characters in the story that sing or recite them, and to the situations in it."[T 1]
Brian Rosebury agrees that the distinctive thing about Tolkien's verse is its "individuation of poetic styles to suit the expressive needs of a given character or narrative moment".[6] Diane Marchesani, in Mythlore, considers the songs in The Lord of the Rings as "the folklore of Middle-earth", calling them "an integral part of the narrative".[7] She distinguishes four kinds of folklore: lore, including rhymes of lore, spells, and prophecies; ballads, from the Elvish "Tale of Tinuviel" to "The Ent and the Entwife" with its traditional question-answer format; ballad-style, simpler verse such as the hobbits' walking-songs; and nonsense, from "The Man in the Moon Stayed Up Too Late" to Pippin's "Bath Song". In each case, she states, the verse is "indispensable" to the narrative, revealing both the characters involved and the traditions of their race.[7]
The poetry of the Shire is "plain, simple, straightforward in theme and expression", verse suitable for hobbits, but which varies continuously to suit changing situations and growing characters.[8] Bilbo's Old Walking Song, "The Road goes ever on and on / Down from the door where it began. Now far ahead the Road has gone, And I must follow, if I can, Pursuing it with eager feet..." is placed at the start of The Lord of the Rings. It reappears, sung by Frodo, varied with "weary feet" to suit his mood, shortly before he sees a Ringwraith; and a third time, at the end of the book, by a much aged, sleepy, forgetful, dying Bilbo in Rivendell, when the poem has shifted register to "But I at last with weary feet / Will turn towards the lighted inn, My evening-rest and sleep to meet". Shippey observes that the reader can see that the subject is now death. Frodo, too, leaves Middle-earth, but with a different walking-song, singing of "A day will come at last when I / Shall take the hidden paths that run / West of the Moon, East of the Sun", which Shippey glosses as the "Lost Straight Road" that goes out of the round world, straight to Elvenhome.[8]
In contrast to the hobbits, Tom Bombadil only speaks in metre.[9] The Tolkien scholar David Dettmann writes that Tom Bombadil's guests find that song and speech run together in his house; they realize they are all "singing merrily, as if it was easier and more natural than talking".[10] [T 2] Such signals are, Forest-Hill asserts, cues to the reader to look for Tolkien's theories of "creativity, identity, and meaning".[9]
Shippey states that in The Lord of the Rings, poetry in the metre of Old English verse is used to give a direct impression of the oral tradition of the Riders of Rohan; Tolkien's "Where now the horse and the rider?" echoes the Old English poem The Wanderer, while "Arise now, arise, Riders of Theoden" is based on the Finnesburg Fragment. In Shippey's opinion, these poems are about memory "of the barbarian past",[11] and the fragility of oral tradition makes what is remembered specially valuable. As fiction, he writes, Tolkien's "imaginative re-creation of the past adds to it an unusual emotional depth."[11] Some of the poems are in alliterative verse, recreating the feeling of Old English poetry, with its use of rhythm and alliteration. Among these are Aragorn's lament for Boromir, which recalls Scyld Scefing's ship-burial in Beowulf[12] In Shippey's view, the three epitaph poems in The Lord of the Rings, including "The Mounds of Mundburg" and, based on the famous Ubi sunt? passage in "The Wanderer", Tolkien's "Lament of the Rohirrim",[4][13][14] represent Tolkien's finest alliterative Modern English verse.[4]
The Hobbit
The Hobbit contains over a dozen poems, many of which are frivolous, but some—like the dwarves' ballad in the first chapter, which is continued or adapted in later chapters—show how poetry and narrative can be combined.[15]
The Adventures of Tom Bombadil
The Adventures of Tom Bombadil, published in 1962, contains 16 poems including some such as "The Stone Troll" and "Oliphaunt" that also appear in The Lord of the Rings. The first two poems in the collection concern Tom Bombadil, a character described in The Fellowship of the Ring,[T 3] while "The Sea-Bell" or "Frodos Dreme" was considered by the poet W. H. Auden to be Tolkien's "finest" poetic work.[16]
The Silmarillion
The Silmarillion as edited and constructed by Christopher Tolkien does not contain explicitly identified poetry, but Gergely Nagy notes that the prose hints repeatedly at the style of Beleriand's "lost" poetry. The work's varied prose styles imply to Nagy that it is meant to represent a compendium, in Christopher Tolkien's words, "made long afterwards from sources of great diversity (poems, and annals, and oral tales)".[17][T 4] Nagy infers from verse-like fragments in the text that the poetry of Beleriand used alliteration, rhyme, and rhythm including possibly iambics.[17]
Tolkien's legendarium
Tolkien's legendarium, the mass of Middle-earth manuscripts that he left unpublished, contain several poems. Some are long heroic lays or lyric poetry, edited by his son Christopher in The Lays of Beleriand. These include the tale of the tragic figure of Túrin Turambar in 2276 lines of verse, The Lay of the Children of Húrin, and the Tale of Beren and Lúthien in some 4200 lines of rhyming couplets, The Lay of Leithian.[18] The fantasy novelist Suzannah Rowntree wrote that The Lays of Beleriand was a favourite of hers. In her view, "the book's main attraction is Part III, 'The Lay of Leithian'". She describes this as "a red-blooded, grand poem, written in a richly ornamented style bordering (in places) on the baroque. At worst this seems a little clumsy; at best it fits the lavish, heroic story and setting." She comments that C. S. Lewis "obviously enjoyed the poem hugely," going so far as to invent scholars Peabody and Pumpernickel who comment on what Lewis pretends is an ancient text.[19]
Other poems
The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son
The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son is a play, reworking the Old English poem The Battle of Maldon, written in alliterative verse. It represents what critics agree is a biting critique of the heroic ethos, castigating Beorhtnoth's foolish pride.[20][21][22]
Songs for the Philologists
Songs for the Philologists is a short, unauthorised collection of poems of philological interest, including 13 by Tolkien; six of those are in Old English,[23] and one, "Bagme Bloma", is the only poem ever written in Gothic.[24] Tolkien intended them to be sung to familiar tunes; thus Ofer wídne gársecg was an Old English translation of the folk ballad "The Mermaid", beginning "Oh 'twas in the broad Atlantic, mid the equinoctial gales / That a young fellow fell overboard among the sharks and whales"; it was to be sung to "The Mermaid"'s tune.[25]
Collected poems
In 2024, the Tolkien scholars Christina Scull and Wayne G. Hammond published The Collected Poems of J. R. R. Tolkien.[26] The work, in three volumes, contains some 195 sections with a total of 295 of his poems, of which 70 have not been published before. Each poem is supported by commentary and draft versions illustrating the history of its creation. Hammond stated that some of the unpublished poems are "remarkably good", while Scull said that they would extend people's "view of Tolkien as a creative writer."[27] She found the incomplete war poem "The Empty Chapel" particularly "affecting".[27] A poem in Old English, Bealuwérig ("Malicious Outlaw"), is Tolkien's translation of Lewis Carroll's "Jabberwocky", complete with invented words.[27]
Technical skill
A mixed reception
In the early 1990s, the scholar of English Melanie Rawls wrote that while some critics found Tolkien's poetry "well-crafted and beautiful", others thought it "excruciatingly bad."[28] The Scottish poet Alan Bold,[29] similarly did "not think much of Tolkien's poetry as poetry."[30] Rawls wrote that Tolkien's verse was "weighed down with cliches and self-consciously decorative words".[28] On the other hand, Geoffrey Russom, a scholar of Old and Middle English verse, considered Tolkien's varied verse as constructing "good music", with a rich diversity of structure that avoids the standard iambic pentameter of much modern English poetry.[31] The scholar of English Randel Helms described Tolkien's "Errantry" as "a stunningly skillful piece of versification ... with smooth and lovely rhythms";[32] while Rebecca Ankeny writes that Tolkien's poetry "reflects and supports Tolkien's notion of Secondary Creation".[30]
Metrical variety
Kullmann and Siepmann note the wide variety of metres that Tolkien uses, and that he nearly always avoided the most common form of his time, iambic pentameter. Several poems are unrhymed; these are often but not always alliterative, imitating Old English verse, while others are irregular, like "Sing now, ye people of the Tower of Anor". Of the rhymed verse, Tolkien often uses iambic tetrameter, as in "Gil-galad was an Elven-king", and sometimes iambic octameter, like "Eärendil was a mariner that tarried in Arvernien". Less commonly he uses other metres, including the irregular strophic rhyme of "Troll sat alone on his seat of stone", the iambic dimeter of "We come"/"To Isengard", or the ballad stanza of "An Elven-maid there was of old". On a few occasions, Tolkien uses dactylic metres, such as the dactylic trimeter of "Seek for the Sword that was broken", or the dactylic tetrameter of "Legolas Greenleaf long under tree".[5]
In a detailed reply to Rawls, the poet Paul Edwin Zimmer wrote that "much of the power of Tolkien's 'prose' comes from the fact that it's written by a poet of high technical skill, who carried his metrical training into his fiction."[33] In Zimmer's view, Tolkien could control both simple and complex metres well, and displayed plenty of originality in the metres of poems such as "Tom Bombadil" and "Eärendil".[33]
Legacy
Settings
Seven of Tolkien's songs (all but one, "Errantry", from The Lord of the Rings) were made into a song-cycle, The Road Goes Ever On, set to music by Donald Swann in 1967.[34] The Tolkien Ensemble, founded in 1995, set all the poetry in The Lord of the Rings to music, publishing it on four CDs between 1997 and 2005.[35] The settings were well received by critics.[36]
In fantasy
While The Lord of the Rings has given rise to a large number of adaptations and derivative works,[37] the poems embedded in the text have long been overlooked, and almost never emulated by other fantasy writers.[33] An exception is Poul and Karen Anderson's 1991 short story "Faith", in After the King, a 1991 hommage to Tolkien published on the centenary of his birth. The story ends with two stanzas of "The Wrath of the Fathers, Aeland's epic", written in Old English-style alliterative verse. The first stanza begins:[38]
Hark! We have heard // of Oric the hunter,
Guthlach the great-thewed, // and other goodmen
Following far, // fellowship vengeful,
Over the heath, // into the underground,
Running their road // through a rugged portal.
See also
References
Primary
- ^ Carpenter 2023, #306 to Michael Tolkien, October 1968
- ^ Tolkien 1954a, book 1, ch. 7 "In the House of Tom Bombadil"
- ^ Tolkien 2014, pp. 35–54, 75, 88
- ^ Tolkien 1977, Foreword
Secondary
- ^ Kullmann 2013.
- ^ Flieger 2013, pp. 522–532.
- ^ Kullmann 2013, pp. 283–309.
- ^ a b c d Higgins, Andrew (2014). "Tolkien's Poetry (2013), edited by Julian Eilmann and Allan Turner". Journal of Tolkien Research. 1 (1). Article 4.
- ^ a b Kullmann & Siepmann 2021, pp. 228–238.
- ^ Rosebury 2003, p. 118.
- ^ a b Marchesani 1980, pp. 3–5.
- ^ a b Shippey 2001, pp. 188–191.
- ^ a b Forest-Hill, Lynn (2015). ""Hey dol, merry dol": Tom Bombadil's Nonsense, or Tolkien's Creative Uncertainty? A Response to Thomas Kullmann". Connotations. 25 (1): 91–107.
- ^ Dettmann, David L. (2014). "Väinämöinen in Middle-earth: The Pervasive Presence of the Kalevala in the Bombadil Chapters of 'The Lord of the Rings'". In John William Houghton; Janet Brennan Croft; Nancy Martsch (eds.). Tolkien in the New Century: Essays in Honor of Tom Shippey. McFarland. pp. 207–209. ISBN 978-1476614861.
- ^ a b Shippey 2001, pp. 96–97.
- ^ Hall, Mark F. (2006). "The Theory and Practice of Alliterative Verse in the Work of J.R.R. Tolkien". Mythlore. 25 (1). Article 4.
- ^ Shippey 2005, p. 202.
- ^ Lee & Solopova 2005, pp. 47–48, 195–196.
- ^ Shippey 2001, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Auden, W. H. (2015). The Complete Works of W. H. Auden, Volume V: Prose: 1963–1968. Princeton University Press. p. 354. ISBN 978-0691151717.
- ^ a b Nagy, Gergely (2004). "The Adapted Text: The Lost Poetry of Beleriand". Tolkien Studies. 1 (1): 21–41. doi:10.1353/tks.2004.0012. S2CID 170087216.
- ^ Tolkien 1985
- ^ Rowntree, Suzannah (19 April 2012). "[Review:] The Lays of Beleriand by JRR Tolkien". Archived from the original on 5 May 2013. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
- ^ Honegger, Thomas (2007). "The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth: Philology and the Literary Muse". Tolkien Studies. 4 (1): 189–199. doi:10.1353/tks.2007.0021. S2CID 170401120.
- ^ Clark, George (2000). George Clark and Daniel Timmons (ed.). J. R. R. Tolkien and His Literary Resonances: Views of Middle-earth. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 39–51.
- ^ Shippey, Tom A. (2007). Roots and Branches: Selected Papers on Tolkien. Zurich and Berne: Walking Tree Publishers. pp. 323–339.
- ^ Collier, Pieter (20 February 2005). "Songs for the Philologists". Tolkien Library. Retrieved 26 August 2024.
- ^ Annear, Lucas (2011). "Language in Tolkien's Bagme Bloma". Tolkien Studies. 8 (1): 37–49. doi:10.1353/tks.2011.0005. S2CID 170171873.
- ^ Shippey 2005, Appendix B "Four 'Asterisk' Poems", pp. 399–408.
- ^ Tolkien 2024.
- ^ a b c Alberge, Dalya (24 August 2024). "Beyond Bilbo: JRR Tolkien's long-lost poetry to be published". The Observer. Retrieved 24 August 2024.
- ^ a b Rawls, Melanie A. (1993). "The Verse of J.R.R. Tolkien". Mythlore. 19 (1). Article 1.
- ^ Bold, Alan (1983). "Hobbit Verse Versus Tolkien's Poem". In Giddings, Robert (ed.). J. R. R. Tolkien: This Far Land. Vision Press. pp. 137–153. ISBN 978-0389203742.
- ^ a b Ankeny, Rebecca (2005). "Poem as Sign in 'The Lord of the Rings'". Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 16 (2 (62)): 86–95. JSTOR 43308763.
- ^ Russom, Geoffrey (2000). "Tolkien's Versecraft in 'The Hobbit' and 'The Lord of the Rings'". In Clark, George; Timmons, Daniel (eds.). J. R. R. Tolkien and His Literary Resonances. Greenwood Press. pp. 54–69. ISBN 9780313308451.
- ^ Helms, Randel (1974). Tolkien's World. Thames and Hudson. p. 130. ISBN 978-0500011140.
- ^ a b c Zimmer, Paul Edwin (1993). "Another Opinion of 'The Verse of J.R.R. Tolkien'". Mythlore. 19 (2). Article 2.
- ^ "Song-Cycles". The Donald Swann Website. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
- ^ Drout, Michael D. C. (2006). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 539. ISBN 1-135-88034-4.
- ^ Weichmann, Christian. "The Lord of the Rings: Complete Songs and Poems (4-CD-Box)". The Tolkien Ensemble. Archived from the original on 27 October 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2020.
- ^ Mitchell, Christopher. "J. R. R. Tolkien: Father of Modern Fantasy Literature". "Let There Be Light" series. University of California Television. Archived from the original (Google Video) on 28 July 2006. Retrieved 20 July 2006..
- ^ Anderson, Poul; Anderson, Karen (1991). "Faith". After the King. Tor Books. pp. 80–105. ISBN 978-0-7653-0207-6.
Sources
- Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981]. The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4.
- Eilmann, Julian; Turner, Allan, eds. (2013). Tolkien's Poetry. Walking Tree. ISBN 978-3905703283.
- Flieger, Verlyn (2013) [2007]. "Poems by Tolkien: 'The Lord of the Rings'". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 522–532. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1.
- Kullmann, Thomas (2013). "Poetic Insertions in Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings". Connotations: A Journal for Critical Debate. 23 (2): 283–309. reviewing Eilmann & Turner 2013
- Kullmann, Thomas; Siepmann, Dirk (2021). Tolkien as a Literary Artist. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-3-030-69298-8.
- Lee, Stuart D.; Solopova, Elizabeth (2005). The Keys of Middle-earth. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1137454690.
- Marchesani, Diane (1980). "Tolkien's Lore: The Songs of Middle-earth". Mythlore. 7 (1): 3–5 (Article 1).
- Rosebury, Brian (2003). Tolkien: A Cultural Phenomenon. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-59998-7.
- Shippey, Tom (2001). J. R. R. Tolkien: Author of the Century. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0261104013.
- Shippey, Tom (2005) [1982]. The Road to Middle-Earth (Third ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0261102750.
- Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954a). The Fellowship of the Ring. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 9552942.
- Tolkien, J. R. R. (2014) [1962]. The Adventures of Tom Bombadil: and other verses from the Red Book. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-755727-1.
- Tolkien, J. R. R. (1977). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). The Silmarillion. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-25730-2.
- Tolkien, J. R. R. (1985). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). The Lays of Beleriand. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-39429-5.
- Tolkien, J. R. R. (2024). Scull, Christina; Hammond, Wayne G. (eds.). The Collected Poems of J. R. R. Tolkien. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-862882-6.