Islam in South Asia: Difference between revisions

Muslims in South Asia
	United Nations cartographic map of South Asia
Total population
	c. 652.8 million (2019); (32% of the population)
Regions with significant populations
Pakistan	240,760,000 (2024)
India	200,000,000 (2021)
Bangladesh	150,400,000 (2022)
Afghanistan	41,128,771 (2022)
Sri Lanka	2,131,240 (2023)
Nepal	1,483,060 (2021)
Maldives	560,000 (2021)
Bhutan	727 (2020)
Religions
	Predominantly Sunni Islam
Languages
	Liturgical (Universal); Quranic Arabic; Common (Regional); Hindustani (Hindi–Urdu), Bengali, Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi, Saraiki, Dari (Persian), Kashmiri, Balochi, Maldivian, and other languages of South Asia; Traditional (Community); Arabi Malayalam, Arwi, Beary and others;

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Latest revision as of 09:22, 29 August 2024

Islam is the second-largest religion in South Asia, with more than 650 million Muslims living there, forming about one-third of the region's population. Islam first spread along the coastal regions of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka, almost as soon as it started in the Arabian Peninsula, as the Arab traders brought it to South Asia. South Asia has the largest population of Muslims in the world, with about one-third of all Muslims living here.^[17]^[18] Islam is the dominant religion in half of the South Asian countries (Pakistan, Maldives, Bangladesh and Afghanistan). It is the second largest religion in India and third largest in Sri Lanka and Nepal.

On the Indian subcontinent, Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the peninsula, in today's Kerala state. Arabs traded with Malabar even before the birth of Muhammad. Native legends say that a group of Sahaba, under Malik Ibn Deenar, arrived on the Malabar Coast and preached Islam. According to that legend, the first mosque of India was built by the mandate of the last King of Chera Perumals of Makotai, who accepted Islam and received the name Tajudheen during the lifetime of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632).^[19]^[20]^[21] On a similar note, Tamil Muslims on the eastern coast also claim that they converted to Islam in Muhammad's lifetime. According to Qissat Shakarwati Farmad, the Masjids at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayini, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest Masjids in Indian Subcontinent.^[22]^[23] ^[24] Historicaly, the Barwada Mosque in Ghogha, Gujarat built before 623 CE, Cheraman Juma Mosque (629 CE) in Methala, Kerala and Palaiya Jumma Palli (630 CE) in Kilakarai, Tamil Nadu are three of the first mosques in South Asia.^[25]^[26]^[27]^[28]^[23]

The first incursion occurred through sea by Caliph Umar's governor of Bahrain, Usman ibn Abu al-Aas, who sent his brother Hakam ibn Abu al-Aas to raid and reconnoitre the Makran region^[29] around 636 CE or 643 AD long before any Arab army reached the frontier of India by land. Al-Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who attacked Makran in the year 649 AD, was an early partisan of Ali ibn Abu Talib.^[30] During the caliphate of Ali, many Hindu Jats of Sindh had come under the influence of Shi'ism^[31] and some even participated in the Battle of Camel and died fighting for Ali.^[30] According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep islands, situated just to the west of Malabar Coast, by Ubaidullah in 661 CE. After the Rashidun Caliphate, Muslim dynasties came to power.^[32]^[33] Since 1947, South Asia has been largely governed by modern states.^[34]^[35]

Origins

Islamic influence first came to be felt in the Indian subcontinent during the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders. Arab traders used to visit the Malabar region to trade even before Islam had been established in Arabia. Unlike the coasts of Malabar, the northwestern coasts were not as receptive to the Middle Eastern arrivals. Hindu merchants in Sindh and Gujarat perceived the Arab merchants to be competitors.

According to Historians Henry Miers Elliot and John Dowson in their book The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians, the first ship bearing Muslim travelers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 CE. The first Indian mosque is thought to have been built in 629 CE, purportedly at the behest of an unknown Chera dynasty ruler, during the lifetime of Muhammad (c. 571–632) in Kodungallur, in district of Thrissur, Kerala by Malik Bin Deenar. In Malabar, Muslims are called Mappila.

Henry Rawlinson, in his book Ancient and Medieval History of India (ISBN 81-86050-79-5), claims the first Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century. This fact is corroborated, by J. Sturrock in his South Kanara and Madras Districts Manuals,^[36] and also by Haridas Bhattacharya in Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV.^[37]

The Arab merchants and traders became the carriers of the new religion and they propagated it wherever they went.^[38] It was, however, the subsequent expansion of the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent over the next millennia that established Islam in the region.

According to Derryl N. Maclean, a link between Sindh and early partisans of Ali or proto-Shi'ites can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who traveled across Sind to Makran in the year 649AD and presented a report on the area to the Caliph. He supported Ali, and died fighting on his behalf alongside Sindhi Jats.^[39]

During the reign of Ali, many Jats came under the influence of Islam.^[40] Jats fought against the Muslims in the battle of Chains in 634^[41] and later also fought on the side of Ali in the Battle of the Camel in 656 under their chief, Ali B. Danur.^[42] After the Islamic conquest of Persia was completed, the Muslim Arabs then began to move towards the lands east of Persia and in 652 captured Herat.^[43]

Conversions

The Islamic ambitions of the sultans and Mughals had concentrated in expanding Muslim power and looting, not in seeking converts. Evidence of the absence of systematic programs for conversion is the reason for the concentration of South Asia's Muslim populations outside the main core of the Muslim polities^[44] in the northeast and northwest regions of the subcontinent, which were on the peripheries of Muslim states.^[45]

The Sufis did not preach egalitarianism, but played an important role in integrating agricultural settlements with the larger contemporary cultures. In areas where Sufis received grants and supervised clearing of forestry, they had the role of mediating with worldly and divine authority. Richard M. Eaton has described the significance of this in the context of West Punjab and East Bengal, the two main areas to develop Muslim majorities.^[46] The partition was eventually made possible because of the concentration of Muslim majorities in northwest and northeast India.^[47] The overwhelming majority of the subcontinent's Muslims live in regions which became Pakistan in 1947.^[48]

These nominal conversions to Islam, brought about by regional Muslim polities, were followed by reforms, especially after the 17th century, in which Muslims integrated with the larger Muslim world. Improved transport services in the nineteenth century brought Muslim masses into contact with Mecca, which facilitated reformist movements stressing Quranic literalism and making people aware of the differences between Islamic commands and their actual practices.^[49]

Islamic reformist movements, such as the Faraizi movement, in the nineteenth century rural Bengal aimed to remove indigenous folk practices from Bengali Islam and commit the population exclusively to Allah and Muhammad.^[50] Politically the reform aspect of conversion, emphasizing exclusiveness, continued with the Pakistan movement for a separate Muslim state^[49] and a cultural aspect was the assumption of Arab culture.^[51]

Demographics

Muslim Percentage by Country
Country			Percent
Maldives^[52]^[53]			100%
Afghanistan^[54]			99.7%
Pakistan^[55]			96.47%
Bangladesh^[56]			91.04%
India^[57]			14.12%
Sri Lanka^[58]			9.8%
Nepal^[59]			5.09%
Bhutan			0.1%

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and the Maldives are Muslim-majority countries. The Muslim population in India is 14.12%, which still makes it the largest Muslim population outside the Muslim-majority countries.^[60]

Notes

References

Citations

^ Burke, Daniel Burke, ed. (29 July 2016). "The moment American Muslims were waiting for". CNN Religion. Archived from the original on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
^ Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (2013). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-415-44851-2. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 18 June 2023.
^ "Overall total population" (xlsx). United Nations. Archived from the original on 18 February 2020. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
^ "Population". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2021. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 14 July 2021. 238,181,034 (July 2021 est.)
^ Diamant, Jeff. "The countries with the 10 largest Christian populations and the 10 largest Muslim populations". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 12 October 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
^ "Census 2022: Bangladesh population now 165 million". www.dhakatribune.com. 27 July 2022. Archived from the original on 27 July 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
^ "World Bank Open Data". World Bank Open Data. Archived from the original on 26 May 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
^ "Afghanistan". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 8 October 2022. (Archived 2022 edition.)
^ Department of Census and Statistics,The Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka-2011 Archived 7 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine
^ "The Kathmandu Post | Read online latest news and articles from Nepal". kathmandupost.com. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
^ "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
^ "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
^ Pew Research Center - Global Religious Landscape 2010 - religious composition by country Archived 5 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
^ "Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project - Research and data from Pew Research Center". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
^ Al-Jallad, Ahmad (30 May 2011). "Polygenesis in the Arabic Dialects". Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. BRILL. doi:10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_SIM_000030. ISBN 9789004177024. Archived from the original on 15 August 2016. Retrieved 23 January 2019.
^ Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 27, footnote 3.
^ Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (1 January 2013). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. ISBN 9780415448512.
^ "10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 7 February 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
^ "World's second oldest mosque is in India". Bahrain tribune. Archived from the original on 6 July 2006. Retrieved 9 August 2006.
^ Ibn Nadim, "Fihrist", 1037
^ "History". Malik Deenar Grand Juma Masjid. Archived from the original on 13 January 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
^ Prange, Sebastian R. Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast. Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.
^ ^a ^b Kumar(Gujarati Magazine), Ahmadabad,July 2012,P 444
^ Metcalf 2009, p. 1.
^ "Oldest Indian mosque: Trail leads to Gujarat". The Times of India. 5 November 2016. Archived from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
^ "Oldest Indian mosque: Trail leads to Gujarat". The Times of India. 6 November 2016. Archived from the original on 9 December 2017. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
^ Sharma, Indu (22 March 2018). "Top 11 Famous Muslim Religious Places in Gujarat". Gujarat Travel Blog. Archived from the original on 24 April 2019. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
^ Prof.Mehboob Desai,Masjit during the time of Prophet Nabi Muhammed Sale Allahu Alayhi Wasalam,Divy Bhasakar,Gujarati News Paper, Thursday, column 'Rahe Roshan',24 May,page 4
^ Al Baldiah wal nahaiyah vol: 7 page 141
^ ^a ^b MacLean, Derryl N. (1989), Religion and Society in Arab Sind, pp. 126, BRILL, ISBN 90-04-08551-3
^ S. A. A. Rizvi, "A socio-intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India", Volo. 1, pp. 138, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).
^ Levy-Rubin, Milka (2011). Non-Muslims in the Early Islamic Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–103. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511977435. ISBN 978-1108449618.
^ Jo Van Steenbergen (2020). "2.1". A History of the Islamic World, 600–1800: Empire, Dynastic Formations, and Heterogeneities in Pre-Modern Islamic West-Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1000093070.
^ Jalal, Ayesha; Bose, Sugata (1998), Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy (1st ed.), Sang-e-Meel Publications
^ Talbot, Ian (2016), A History of Modern South Asia: Politics, States, Diasporas, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-21659-2
^ Sturrock, J., South Canara and Madras District Manual (2 vols., Madras, 1894-1895)
^ ISBN 81-85843-05-8 Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV
^ "Mujeeb Jaihoon". JAIHOON.COM. Archived from the original on 22 June 2006.
^ Derryl N. Maclean (1989). Religion and Society in Arab Sind. E. J. BRILL. p. 126. ISBN 90-04-08551-3.
^ Ibn Athir, Vol. 3, pp. 45–46, 381, as cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "The Shia Muslims", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).
^ Abdulla, Ahmed (1987). An Observation: Perspective of Pakistan. Tanzeem Publishers. p. 137. Archived from the original on 13 March 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
^ Zakeri, Mohsen (1995). Sasanid Soldiers in Early Muslim Society: The Origins of 'Ayyārān and Futuwwa. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 127. ISBN 978-3-447-03652-8.
^ "Afghanistan | history – geography". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 November 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2002, p. 6.
^ Eaton 1993, p. 115.
^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2002, p. 7.
^ Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 27.
^ Eaton 1993, p. 119.
^ ^a ^b Eaton 1985, p. 121.
^ Eaton 1993, p. 282.
^ Eaton 1985, p. 122.
^ "Maldives". Law.emory.edu. 21 February 1920. Archived from the original on 11 February 2013. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
^ Maldives – Religion Archived 14 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine, countrystudies.us
^ "CIA – The World Factbook – Afghanistan". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
^ Population by religions Archived 17 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine, Statistics Division of the Government of Pakistan
^ "The Future of the Global Muslim Population". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 15 January 2011. Archived from the original on 24 May 2017. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
^ "Indian Census". Censusindia.gov.in. Archived from the original on 14 May 2007. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
^ "Table 1". 13 May 2007. Archived from the original on 13 May 2007. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
^ "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". cia.gov. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
^ Metcalf 2009, p. xvii–xviii.

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[1] Burke, Daniel Burke, ed. (29 July 2016). "The moment American Muslims were waiting for". CNN Religion. Archived from the original on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.

[2] Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (2013). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-415-44851-2. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 18 June 2023.

[UN_WPP_2019_2-3] "Overall total population" (xlsx). United Nations. Archived from the original on 18 February 2020. Retrieved 16 July 2019.

[4] "Population". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2021. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 14 July 2021. 238,181,034 (July 2021 est.)

[5] Diamant, Jeff. "The countries with the 10 largest Christian populations and the 10 largest Muslim populations". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 12 October 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.

[6] "Census 2022: Bangladesh population now 165 million". www.dhakatribune.com. 27 July 2022. Archived from the original on 27 July 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2023.

[7] "World Bank Open Data". World Bank Open Data. Archived from the original on 26 May 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.

[8] "Afghanistan". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 8 October 2022. (Archived 2022 edition.)

[9] Department of Census and Statistics,The Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka-2011 Archived 7 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine

[10] "The Kathmandu Post | Read online latest news and articles from Nepal". kathmandupost.com. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.

[UN_WPP-11] "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.

[UN_WPP_2022-12] "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.

[pew2010-13] Pew Research Center - Global Religious Landscape 2010 - religious composition by country Archived 5 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine.

[14] "Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project - Research and data from Pew Research Center". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.

[15] Al-Jallad, Ahmad (30 May 2011). "Polygenesis in the Arabic Dialects". Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. BRILL. doi:10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_SIM_000030. ISBN 9789004177024. Archived from the original on 15 August 2016. Retrieved 23 January 2019.

[FOOTNOTETalbotSingh2009p._27,_footnote_3-16] Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 27, footnote 3.

[auto1-17] Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (1 January 2013). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. ISBN 9780415448512.

[auto-18] "10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 7 February 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017.

[BT-19] "World's second oldest mosque is in India". Bahrain tribune. Archived from the original on 6 July 2006. Retrieved 9 August 2006.

[Fihrist-20] Ibn Nadim, "Fihrist", 1037

[21] "History". Malik Deenar Grand Juma Masjid. Archived from the original on 13 January 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2011.

[auto2-22] Prange, Sebastian R. Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast. Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.

[Kumar_2012,_P_444-23] Kumar(Gujarati Magazine), Ahmadabad,July 2012,P 444

[FOOTNOTEMetcalf20091-24] Metcalf 2009, p. 1.

[25] "Oldest Indian mosque: Trail leads to Gujarat". The Times of India. 5 November 2016. Archived from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2019.

[26] "Oldest Indian mosque: Trail leads to Gujarat". The Times of India. 6 November 2016. Archived from the original on 9 December 2017. Retrieved 17 May 2019.

[27] Sharma, Indu (22 March 2018). "Top 11 Famous Muslim Religious Places in Gujarat". Gujarat Travel Blog. Archived from the original on 24 April 2019. Retrieved 28 July 2019.

[28] Prof.Mehboob Desai,Masjit during the time of Prophet Nabi Muhammed Sale Allahu Alayhi Wasalam,Divy Bhasakar,Gujarati News Paper, Thursday, column 'Rahe Roshan',24 May,page 4

[29] Al Baldiah wal nahaiyah vol: 7 page 141

[MacLean,_Derryl_N._1989_pp._126-30] MacLean, Derryl N. (1989), Religion and Society in Arab Sind, pp. 126, BRILL, ISBN 90-04-08551-3

[31] S. A. A. Rizvi, "A socio-intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India", Volo. 1, pp. 138, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).

[:12-32] Levy-Rubin, Milka (2011). Non-Muslims in the Early Islamic Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–103. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511977435. ISBN 978-1108449618.

[33] Jo Van Steenbergen (2020). "2.1". A History of the Islamic World, 600–1800: Empire, Dynastic Formations, and Heterogeneities in Pre-Modern Islamic West-Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1000093070.

[34] Jalal, Ayesha; Bose, Sugata (1998), Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy (1st ed.), Sang-e-Meel Publications

[35] Talbot, Ian (2016), A History of Modern South Asia: Politics, States, Diasporas, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-21659-2

[36] Sturrock, J., South Canara and Madras District Manual (2 vols., Madras, 1894-1895)

[37] ISBN 81-85843-05-8 Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV

[38] "Mujeeb Jaihoon". JAIHOON.COM. Archived from the original on 22 June 2006.

[Derryl_N._Maclean_p._126-39] Derryl N. Maclean (1989). Religion and Society in Arab Sind. E. J. BRILL. p. 126. ISBN 90-04-08551-3.

[40] Ibn Athir, Vol. 3, pp. 45–46, 381, as cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "The Shia Muslims", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).

[41] Abdulla, Ahmed (1987). An Observation: Perspective of Pakistan. Tanzeem Publishers. p. 137. Archived from the original on 13 March 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.

[Mohsen1-42] Zakeri, Mohsen (1995). Sasanid Soldiers in Early Muslim Society: The Origins of 'Ayyārān and Futuwwa. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 127. ISBN 978-3-447-03652-8.

[43] "Afghanistan | history – geography". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 November 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2018.

[FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf20026-44] Metcalf & Metcalf 2002, p. 6.

[FOOTNOTEEaton1993115-45] Eaton 1993, p. 115.

[FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf20027-46] Metcalf & Metcalf 2002, p. 7.

[FOOTNOTETalbotSingh200927-47] Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 27.

[FOOTNOTEEaton1993119-48] Eaton 1993, p. 119.

[FOOTNOTEEaton1985121-49] Eaton 1985, p. 121.

[FOOTNOTEEaton1993282-50] Eaton 1993, p. 282.

[FOOTNOTEEaton1985122-51] Eaton 1985, p. 122.

[EmoryLaw-52] "Maldives". Law.emory.edu. 21 February 1920. Archived from the original on 11 February 2013. Retrieved 23 August 2010.

[53] Maldives – Religion Archived 14 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine, countrystudies.us

[AfgCIA-54] "CIA – The World Factbook – Afghanistan". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2012.

[PakCIA-55] Population by religions Archived 17 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine, Statistics Division of the Government of Pakistan

[pewforum.org-56] "The Future of the Global Muslim Population". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 15 January 2011. Archived from the original on 24 May 2017. Retrieved 24 May 2017.

[57] "Indian Census". Censusindia.gov.in. Archived from the original on 14 May 2007. Retrieved 23 August 2010.

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[FOOTNOTEMetcalf2009xvii–xviii-60] Metcalf 2009, p. xvii–xviii.

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 {{short description|Overview of Islam in the subcontinent}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
 {{Infobox religious group
-|group = Desi Muslims<br />
+|group = Muslims in South Asia<br />
 |image = South Asia UN.png
 |caption = United Nations [[Cartography|cartographic]] map of South Asia
-|population = {{Circa|630+ million}} (2023)<br />(33% of the population) {{increase}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pechilis |first1=Karen |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=kaubzRxh-U0C}} |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today |last2=Raj |first2=Selva J. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-44851-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C&pg=PA193 193]}}</ref>
+|population = {{Circa|652.8 million}} (2019)<br />(32% of the population) {{increase}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/29/politics/muslims-moment-khan/index.html|title=The moment American Muslims were waiting for|editor-last=Burke|editor-first=Daniel Burke|website=CNN Religion|date=29 July 2016|access-date=13 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312235900/http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/29/politics/muslims-moment-khan/index.html|archive-date=12 March 2017|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pechilis |first1=Karen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today |last2=Raj |first2=Selva J. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-44851-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C&pg=PA193 193] |access-date=18 June 2023 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024331/https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="UN WPP 2019 2">{{Cite web|title=Overall total population|url=https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Files/1_Indicators%20(Standard)/EXCEL_FILES/1_Population/WPP2019_POP_F01_1_TOTAL_POPULATION_BOTH_SEXES.xlsx|access-date=16 July 2019|publisher=United Nations|format=xlsx|archive-date=18 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218054922/https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Files/1_Indicators%20(Standard)/EXCEL_FILES/1_Population/WPP2019_POP_F01_1_TOTAL_POPULATION_BOTH_SEXES.xlsx|url-status=live}}</ref>
 |region1    = [[Pakistan]]
+|pop1       = 240,760,000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/pakistan/#people-and-society|title=Population|quote=238,181,034 (July 2021 est.)|access-date=2021-07-14|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|year=2021|archive-date=10 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110014011/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/pakistan/#people-and-society|url-status=live}}</ref> (2024)
-|pop1       = 230,000,000<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amin |first=Tahir |date=2023-05-23 |title=Pakistan's population attains new mark amid economic slump |url=https://www.brecorder.com/news/40243646 |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=Brecorder |language=en}}</ref> ([[2023 Pakistani census|2023]])
 |region2   = [[India]]
-|pop2       = 200,000,000<ref>{{Cite web |last=Diamant |first=Jeff |title=The countries with the 10 largest Christian populations and the 10 largest Muslim populations |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/04/01/the-countries-with-the-10-largest-christian-populations-and-the-10-largest-muslim-populations/ |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref> (2021)
+|pop2       = 200,000,000<ref>{{Cite web |last=Diamant |first=Jeff |title=The countries with the 10 largest Christian populations and the 10 largest Muslim populations |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/04/01/the-countries-with-the-10-largest-christian-populations-and-the-10-largest-muslim-populations/ |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US |archive-date=12 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012081759/https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/04/01/the-countries-with-the-10-largest-christian-populations-and-the-10-largest-muslim-populations/ |url-status=live }}</ref> (2021)
 |region3    = [[Bangladesh]]
-|pop3       = 150,400,000<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-27 |title=Census 2022: Bangladesh population now 165 million |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2022/07/27/bangladeshs-population-size-now-1651-million |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=www.dhakatribune.com |language=en}}</ref> (2022)
+|pop3       = 150,400,000<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-27 |title=Census 2022: Bangladesh population now 165 million |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2022/07/27/bangladeshs-population-size-now-1651-million |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=www.dhakatribune.com |language=en |archive-date=27 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220727073234/https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2022/07/27/bangladeshs-population-size-now-1651-million |url-status=live }}</ref> (2022)
 <!--calculated from total population and percentage of Muslims-->
 |region4    = [[Afghanistan]]
-|pop4       = 41,128,771<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref><ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Afghanistan|access-date=8 October 2022}}</ref> (2022)
+|pop4       = 41,128,771<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=26 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526025607/https://data.worldbank.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Afghanistan|access-date=8 October 2022}}</ref> (2022)
 <!--calculated from total population and percentage of Muslims-->
 |region5    = [[Sri Lanka]]
-|pop5       = 2,131,240<ref>{{cite web |title=Sri Lanka population (2023) live — Countrymeters |url=https://countrymeters.info/en/Sri_Lanka |website=countrymeters.info}}</ref><ref>Department of Census and Statistics,[http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 The Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka-2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107065148/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |date=7 January 2019 }}</ref>  (2023)
+|pop5       = 2,131,240<ref>Department of Census and Statistics,[http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 The Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka-2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107065148/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |date=7 January 2019 }}</ref>  (2023)
 |region6    = [[Nepal]]
-|pop6       = 1,483,060<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Kathmandu Post {{!}} Read online latest news and articles from Nepal |url=http://kathmandupost.com/national/2022/01/27/nepal-s-population-is-29-777-670 |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=kathmandupost.com |language=English}}</ref> ([[2021 Nepal census|2021]])
+|pop6       = 1,483,060<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Kathmandu Post {{!}} Read online latest news and articles from Nepal |url=http://kathmandupost.com/national/2022/01/27/nepal-s-population-is-29-777-670 |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=kathmandupost.com |language=English |archive-date=8 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708131631/https://kathmandupost.com/national/2022/01/27/nepal-s-population-is-29-777-670 |url-status=live }}</ref> ([[2021 Nepal census|2021]])
 |region7    = [[Maldives]]
 |pop7       = 560,000{{UN_Population|ref}} (2021)
 |region8    = [[Bhutan]]
-|pop8       = 727<ref name="pew2010">[http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-tables.pdf Pew Research Center - Global Religious Landscape 2010 - religious composition by country] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805151827/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-tables.pdf |date=5 August 2013 }}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project - Research and data from Pew Research Center |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/religion/religious-demographics/pew-templeton-global-religious-futures-project/ |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref> (2020)
+|pop8       = 727<ref name="pew2010">[http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-tables.pdf Pew Research Center - Global Religious Landscape 2010 - religious composition by country] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805151827/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-tables.pdf |date=5 August 2013 }}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project - Research and data from Pew Research Center |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/religion/religious-demographics/pew-templeton-global-religious-futures-project/ |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205195540/https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/religion/religious-demographics/pew-templeton-global-religious-futures-project/ |url-status=live }}</ref> (2020)
 | langs  = {{Plainlist|
-'''Liturgical (Universal)'''<br />{{Hlist| [[Quranic Arabic]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Al-Jallad |first=Ahmad |title=Polygenesis in the Arabic Dialects |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/polygenesis-in-the-arabic-dialects-EALL_SIM_000030?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics&s.q=neo-arabic |date= 30 May 2011|publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004177024 |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_SIM_000030}}</ref>}}
+'''Liturgical (Universal)'''<br />{{Hlist| [[Quranic Arabic]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Al-Jallad |first=Ahmad |title=Polygenesis in the Arabic Dialects |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/polygenesis-in-the-arabic-dialects-EALL_SIM_000030?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics&s.q=neo-arabic |date=30 May 2011 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004177024 |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_SIM_000030 |access-date=23 January 2019 |archive-date=15 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815234348/http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/polygenesis-in-the-arabic-dialects-EALL_SIM_000030?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics&s.q=neo-arabic |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
-'''Common (Regional)'''<br />{{Hlist| [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Punjabi languages|Punjabi]], [[Pashto]],
+'''Common (Regional)'''<br />{{Hlist| [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Hindi]]–[[Urdu]]), [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Punjabi languages|Punjabi]], [[Pashto]],
 [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]], [[Dari]] ([[Persian language|Persian]]), [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Balochi language|Balochi]], [[Maldivian language|Maldivian]], and other [[languages of South Asia]]{{sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|loc=p. 27, footnote 3}}}}
 '''Traditional (Community)'''<br />{{Hlist| [[Arabi Malayalam]], [[Arwi]], [[Beary language|Beary]] and others}}}}
 |rels= Predominantly [[Sunni Islam]]
 }}
+{{Islam}}
-[[Islam]] is the second-largest religion in [[South Asia]], with more than 640 million [[Muslims]] living there, forming about one-third of the region's population. Islam first spread along the coastal regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Sri Lanka]], almost as soon as it started in the [[Arabian Peninsula]], as the Arab traders brought it to South Asia. South Asia has the [[Islam by country#Continents|largest population]]  of Muslims in the world, with about one-third of all Muslims living here.<ref name="auto1">
+[[Islam]] is the second-largest religion in [[South Asia]], with more than 650 million [[Muslims]] living there, forming about one-third of the region's population. Islam first spread along the coastal regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Sri Lanka]], almost as soon as it started in the [[Arabian Peninsula]], as the Arab traders brought it to South Asia. South Asia has the [[Islam by country#Continents|largest population]]  of Muslims in the world, with about one-third of all Muslims living here.<ref name="auto1">
 {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C&dq=what+percent+of+muslims+live+in+south+asia&pg=PA193|title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today|last1=Pechilis|first1=Karen|last2=Raj|first2=Selva J.|date=1 January 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780415448512}}
+</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/|title=10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050|date=2 April 2015|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=7 February 2017|archive-date=7 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207115222/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Islam is the dominant religion in half of the South Asian countries (Pakistan, Maldives, Bangladesh and Afghanistan). It is the [[Islam in India|second largest]] religion in India and [[South Asia#Religions|third largest]] in Sri Lanka and Nepal.
-</ref><ref name="auto">
-{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/|title=10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050|date=2 April 2015|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=7 February 2017}}
-</ref> Islam is the dominant religion in half of the South Asian countries (Pakistan, Maldives, Bangladesh and Afghanistan). It is the [[Islam in India|second largest]] religion in India and [[South Asia#Religions|third largest]] in Sri Lanka and Nepal.
 On the Indian subcontinent, Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the peninsula, in today's [[Kerala]] state. Arabs traded with [[Malabar (Northern Kerala)|Malabar]] even before the birth of Muhammad. Native legends say that a group of [[Sahaba]], under [[Malik Bin Deenar|Malik Ibn Deenar]], arrived on the [[Malabar Coast]] and preached Islam. According to that legend, [[Cheraman Juma Masjid|the first mosque of India]] was built by the mandate of the last King of [[Chera Perumals of Makotai]], who accepted Islam and received the name ''Tajudheen'' during the lifetime of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] (c. 570–632).<ref name="BT">{{cite web
@@ Line 46: / Line 41: @@
 | title=World's second oldest mosque is in India
 | access-date=9 August 2006
-|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060706220818/http://www.bahraintribune.com/ArticleDetail.asp?CategoryId=4&ArticleId=49332 <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 6 July 2006}}</ref><ref name=Fihrist>Ibn Nadim, "Fihrist", 1037</ref><ref>{{Cite web| url=http://malikdeenarmasjid.com/history.html#content| title=History| publisher=Malik Deenar Grand Juma Masjid| accessdate=18 November 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113222932/http://malikdeenarmasjid.com/history.html#content| archive-date=13 January 2012| url-status=dead}}</ref> On a similar note, [[Tamil Muslim]]s on the eastern coast also claim that they converted to Islam in Muhammad's lifetime. According to ''[[Qissat Shakarwati Farmad]]'', the ''[[Masjids]]'' at Kodungallur, [[Kollam]], [[Madayi]], [[Barkur]], [[Mangalore]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Kannur]], [[Dharmadam]], [[Koyilandy|Panthalayini]], and [[Chaliyam]], were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in Indian Subcontinent.<ref name="auto2">Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast.'' Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.</ref><ref name="Kumar 2012, P 444">Kumar(Gujarati Magazine), Ahmadabad,July 2012,P 444</ref> {{Sfn|Metcalf|2009|p=1}} Historicaly, the Barwada Mosque in [[Ghogha]], Gujarat built before 623 CE, [[Cheraman Juma Mosque]] (629 CE) in [[Methala]], Kerala and [[Palaiya Jumma Palli]] (630 CE) in [[Kilakarai]], Tamil Nadu are three of [[List of mosques in India|the first mosques in South Asia]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Oldest-Indian-mosque-Trail-leads-to-Gujarat/articleshow/55270285.cms|title=Oldest Indian mosque: Trail leads to Gujarat|date=5 November 2016|work=The Times of India|access-date=28 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/indias-oldest-mosque-and-growing-irrelevance-of-muslim-vote-in-gujarat/articleshow/61985802.cms|title=Oldest Indian mosque: Trail leads to Gujarat |website=The Times of India|date=6 November 2016|access-date=17 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gujaratexpert.com/blog/muslim-religious-places-in-gujarat/|title=Top 11 Famous Muslim Religious Places in Gujarat|last=Sharma|first=Indu|date=22 March 2018|website=Gujarat Travel Blog|access-date=28 July 2019}}</ref><ref>Prof.Mehboob Desai,''Masjit during the time of Prophet Nabi Muhammed Sale Allahu Alayhi Wasalam,Divy Bhasakar,Gujarati News Paper, Thursday, column 'Rahe Roshan',24 May,page 4''</ref><ref name="Kumar 2012, P 444"/>
+|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060706220818/http://www.bahraintribune.com/ArticleDetail.asp?CategoryId=4&ArticleId=49332 <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 6 July 2006}}</ref><ref name=Fihrist>Ibn Nadim, "Fihrist", 1037</ref><ref>{{Cite web| url=http://malikdeenarmasjid.com/history.html#content| title=History| publisher=Malik Deenar Grand Juma Masjid| accessdate=18 November 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113222932/http://malikdeenarmasjid.com/history.html#content| archive-date=13 January 2012| url-status=dead}}</ref> On a similar note, [[Tamil Muslim]]s on the eastern coast also claim that they converted to Islam in Muhammad's lifetime. According to ''[[Qissat Shakarwati Farmad]]'', the ''[[Masjids]]'' at Kodungallur, [[Kollam]], [[Madayi]], [[Barkur]], [[Mangalore]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Kannur]], [[Dharmadam]], [[Koyilandy|Panthalayini]], and [[Chaliyam]], were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in Indian Subcontinent.<ref name="auto2">Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast.'' Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.</ref><ref name="Kumar 2012, P 444">Kumar(Gujarati Magazine), Ahmadabad,July 2012,P 444</ref> {{Sfn|Metcalf|2009|p=1}} Historicaly, the Barwada Mosque in [[Ghogha]], Gujarat built before 623 CE, [[Cheraman Juma Mosque]] (629 CE) in [[Methala]], Kerala and [[Palaiya Jumma Palli]] (630 CE) in [[Kilakarai]], Tamil Nadu are three of [[List of mosques in India|the first mosques in South Asia]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Oldest-Indian-mosque-Trail-leads-to-Gujarat/articleshow/55270285.cms|title=Oldest Indian mosque: Trail leads to Gujarat|date=5 November 2016|work=The Times of India|access-date=28 July 2019|archive-date=16 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116041920/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Oldest-Indian-mosque-Trail-leads-to-Gujarat/articleshow/55270285.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/indias-oldest-mosque-and-growing-irrelevance-of-muslim-vote-in-gujarat/articleshow/61985802.cms|title=Oldest Indian mosque: Trail leads to Gujarat|website=The Times of India|date=6 November 2016|access-date=17 May 2019|archive-date=9 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209035951/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/indias-oldest-mosque-and-growing-irrelevance-of-muslim-vote-in-gujarat/articleshow/61985802.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gujaratexpert.com/blog/muslim-religious-places-in-gujarat/|title=Top 11 Famous Muslim Religious Places in Gujarat|last=Sharma|first=Indu|date=22 March 2018|website=Gujarat Travel Blog|access-date=28 July 2019|archive-date=24 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424045506/http://www.gujaratexpert.com/blog/muslim-religious-places-in-gujarat/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Prof.Mehboob Desai,''Masjit during the time of Prophet Nabi Muhammed Sale Allahu Alayhi Wasalam,Divy Bhasakar,Gujarati News Paper, Thursday, column 'Rahe Roshan',24 May,page 4''</ref><ref name="Kumar 2012, P 444"/>
-The first incursion occurred through sea by Caliph [[Umar]]'s governor of [[Bahrain]], Usman ibn Abu al-Aas, who sent his brother Hakam ibn Abu al-Aas to raid and [[reconnoitre]] the [[Makran]] region<ref>Al Baldiah wal nahaiyah vol: 7 page 141</ref> around 636 CE or 643 AD long before any [[Rashidun army|Arab army]] reached the frontier of India by land. Al-Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who attacked Makran in the year 649 AD, was an early partisan of [[Ali ibn Abu Talib]].<ref name="MacLean, Derryl N. 1989 pp. 126">MacLean, Derryl N. (1989), Religion and Society in Arab Sind, pp. 126, BRILL, {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}</ref> During the caliphate of Ali, many [[Hindu]] [[Jats]] of Sindh had come under the influence of [[Shi'ism]]<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "A socio-intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India", Volo. 1, pp. 138, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> and some even participated in the [[Battle of Camel]] and died fighting for Ali.<ref name="MacLean, Derryl N. 1989 pp. 126" /> According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to [[Lakshadweep]] islands, situated just to the west of Malabar Coast, by [[Sheikh Ubaidullah|Ubaidullah]] in 661 CE. After the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], [[List of Muslim states and dynasties#South Asia|Muslim political dynasties]] came to power.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Levy-Rubin |first=Milka |title=Non-Muslims in the Early Islamic Empire |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1108449618 |location=Cambridge |pages=102–103 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511977435}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jo Van Steenbergen |title=A History of the Islamic World, 600–1800: Empire, Dynastic Formations, and Heterogeneities in Pre-Modern Islamic West-Asia |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-1000093070 |chapter=2.1}}</ref>
+The first incursion occurred through sea by Caliph [[Umar]]'s governor of [[Bahrain]], Usman ibn Abu al-Aas, who sent his brother Hakam ibn Abu al-Aas to raid and [[reconnoitre]] the [[Makran]] region<ref>Al Baldiah wal nahaiyah vol: 7 page 141</ref> around 636 CE or 643 AD long before any [[Rashidun army|Arab army]] reached the frontier of India by land. Al-Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who attacked Makran in the year 649 AD, was an early partisan of [[Ali ibn Abu Talib]].<ref name="MacLean, Derryl N. 1989 pp. 126">MacLean, Derryl N. (1989), Religion and Society in Arab Sind, pp. 126, BRILL, {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}</ref> During the caliphate of Ali, many [[Hindu]] [[Jats]] of Sindh had come under the influence of [[Shi'ism]]<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "A socio-intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India", Volo. 1, pp. 138, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> and some even participated in the [[Battle of Camel]] and died fighting for Ali.<ref name="MacLean, Derryl N. 1989 pp. 126" /> According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to [[Lakshadweep]] islands, situated just to the west of Malabar Coast, by [[Sheikh Ubaidullah|Ubaidullah]] in 661 CE. After the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], [[List of Muslim states and dynasties#South Asia|Muslim dynasties]] came to power.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Levy-Rubin |first=Milka |title=Non-Muslims in the Early Islamic Empire |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1108449618 |location=Cambridge |pages=102–103 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511977435}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jo Van Steenbergen |title=A History of the Islamic World, 600–1800: Empire, Dynastic Formations, and Heterogeneities in Pre-Modern Islamic West-Asia |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-1000093070 |chapter=2.1}}</ref> Since 1947, South Asia has been largely governed by [[State_(polity)#Modern_state|modern states]].<ref>Jalal, Ayesha; Bose, Sugata (1998), Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy (1st ed.), Sang-e-Meel Publications</ref><ref>Talbot, Ian (2016), A History of Modern South Asia: Politics, States, Diasporas, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-21659-2</ref>
 ==Origins==
-{{main|Muhammad in Islam|Rashidun Caliphate|History of Islam|Spread of Islam}}
+{{main|Muhammad in Islam|Rashidun Caliphate|Spread of Islam}}
-Islamic influence first came to be felt in the Indian subcontinent during the early 7th century with the advent of [[Arab]] traders. Arab traders used to visit the [[Malabar region]] to trade even before Islam had been established in Arabia. According to Historians [[Henry Miers Elliot]] and [[John Dowson]] in their book ''[[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians]]'', the first ship bearing Muslim travelers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630&nbsp;CE. The first Indian mosque is thought to have been built in 629&nbsp;CE, purportedly at the behest of an unknown [[Chera dynasty]] ruler, during the lifetime of Muhammad ({{circa|571–632}}) in Kodungallur, in district of [[Thrissur, Kerala]] by Malik Bin Deenar. In Malabar, Muslims are called [[Mappila]].
+Islamic influence first came to be felt in the Indian subcontinent during the early 7th century with the advent of [[Arab]] traders. Arab traders used to visit the [[Malabar region]] to trade even before Islam had been established in Arabia. Unlike the coasts of Malabar, the northwestern coasts were not as receptive to the Middle Eastern arrivals. Hindu merchants in [[Sindh]] and [[Gujarat]] perceived the Arab merchants to be competitors.
+According to Historians [[Henry Miers Elliot]] and [[John Dowson]] in their book ''[[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians]]'', the first ship bearing Muslim travelers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630&nbsp;CE. The first Indian mosque is thought to have been built in 629&nbsp;CE, purportedly at the behest of an unknown [[Chera dynasty]] ruler, during the lifetime of Muhammad ({{circa|571–632}}) in Kodungallur, in district of [[Thrissur, Kerala]] by Malik Bin Deenar. In Malabar, Muslims are called [[Mappila]].
 [[Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet|Henry Rawlinson]], in his book ''Ancient and Medieval History of India'' ({{ISBN|81-86050-79-5}}), claims the first Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century. This fact is corroborated, by [[John Sturrock (colonial administrator)|J. Sturrock]] in his ''South Kanara and Madras Districts Manuals'',<ref>Sturrock, J., South Canara and Madras District Manual (2 vols., Madras, 1894-1895)</ref> and also by [[Haridas Bhattacharya]] in ''Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV''.<ref>{{ISBN|81-85843-05-8}} Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV</ref>
@@ Line 61: / Line 58: @@
 According to Derryl N. Maclean, a link between Sindh and early partisans of Ali or proto-Shi'ites can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who traveled across Sind to Makran in the year 649AD and presented a report on the area to the Caliph. He supported [[Ali]], and died fighting on his behalf alongside Sindhi Jats.<ref name="Derryl N. Maclean p. 126">{{cite book |author=Derryl N. Maclean |date=1989 |title=Religion and Society in Arab Sind |publisher=E. J. BRILL |page=126 |isbn=90-04-08551-3}}</ref>
-During the reign of Ali, many Jats came under the influence of Islam.<ref>Ibn Athir, Vol. 3, pp. 45–46, 381, as cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "'''The Shia Muslims'''", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref> Jats fought against the Muslims in the [[battle of Chains]] in 634<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abdulla |first=Ahmed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lI9AAAAMAAJ&q=jats+in+the+battle+of+chains |title=An Observation: Perspective of Pakistan |date=1987 |publisher=Tanzeem Publishers |language=en|page=137}}</ref> and later also fought on the side of [[Ali]] in the [[Battle of the Camel]] in 656 under their chief, ''Ali B. Danur''.<ref name=Mohsen1>{{Cite book |last=Zakeri |first=Mohsen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VfYnu5F20coC&dq=Sasanid+Soldiers+in+Early+Muslim+Society:+The+Origins+of+'Ayy%C4%81r%C4%81n+and+Futuwwa&pg=PA9 |title=Sasanid Soldiers in Early Muslim Society: The Origins of 'Ayyārān and Futuwwa |date=1995 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-03652-8 |language=en|page=127}}</ref> After the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]] was completed, the Muslim Arabs then began to move towards the lands east of [[Persia]] and in 652 captured [[Herat]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Afghanistan {{!}} history – geography |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan |access-date=9 January 2018}}</ref>
+During the reign of Ali, many Jats came under the influence of Islam.<ref>Ibn Athir, Vol. 3, pp. 45–46, 381, as cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "'''The Shia Muslims'''", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref> Jats fought against the Muslims in the [[battle of Chains]] in 634<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abdulla |first=Ahmed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lI9AAAAMAAJ&q=jats+in+the+battle+of+chains |title=An Observation: Perspective of Pakistan |date=1987 |publisher=Tanzeem Publishers |language=en |page=137 |access-date=10 June 2023 |archive-date=13 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313122948/https://books.google.com/books?id=6lI9AAAAMAAJ&q=jats+in+the+battle+of+chains |url-status=live }}</ref> and later also fought on the side of [[Ali]] in the [[Battle of the Camel]] in 656 under their chief, ''Ali B. Danur''.<ref name=Mohsen1>{{Cite book |last=Zakeri |first=Mohsen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VfYnu5F20coC&dq=Sasanid+Soldiers+in+Early+Muslim+Society:+The+Origins+of+'Ayy%C4%81r%C4%81n+and+Futuwwa&pg=PA9 |title=Sasanid Soldiers in Early Muslim Society: The Origins of 'Ayyārān and Futuwwa |date=1995 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-03652-8 |language=en|page=127}}</ref> After the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]] was completed, the Muslim Arabs then began to move towards the lands east of [[Persia]] and in 652 captured [[Herat]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Afghanistan {{!}} history – geography |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan |access-date=9 January 2018 |archive-date=15 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115163337/https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan |url-status=live }}</ref>
-==History==
-===Political dynasties (Umayyads - 1947)===
-{{main|List of Muslim states and dynasties#South Asia|Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent|Umayyad Caliphate|Sind (caliphal province)|Habbari dynasty|Abbasid Caliphate|Emirate of Multan|Ghaznavids|Ghurid dynasty|Delhi Sultanate|Mughal Empire}}
-[[File:Islamic Gunpowder Empires.jpg|thumb|400px|The [[Age of the Islamic Gunpowders]] dominating the western, central and South Asia.]]
-Under the [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyads]] (661 – 750 AD), many Shias sought [[Right of asylum|asylum]] in the region of Sindh, to live in relative peace in the remote area. In 712 CE, a young Arab general [[Muhammad bin Qasim]] conquered most of the [[Indus River|Indus]] region for the [[Umayyad Empire]], to be made the "As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-[[Mansura, Sindh|Mansurah]].<ref name="Information of Pakistan">{{cite web |url=http://www.infopak.gov.pk/History.aspx |title=History in Chronological Order |publisher=Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of Pakistan |access-date=15 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723113602/http://infopak.gov.pk/History.aspx |archive-date=23 July 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/735610/figuring-qasim-how-pakistan-was-won |title=Figuring Qasim: How Pakistan was won |work=Dawn|access-date=19 February 2015|date=19 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1175127/the-first-pakistani |title=The first Pakistani? |work=Dawn|access-date=19 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1098562/muhammad-bin-qasim-predator-or-preacher |title=Muhammad Bin Qasim: Predator or preacher? |work=Dawn|access-date=19 February 2015|date=8 April 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://scroll.in/article/721012/the-curious-case-of-dressing-up-an-8th-century-arab-as-the-true-founder-of-pakistan|title=Why some in Pakistan want to replace Jinnah as the founder of the country with an 8th century Arab|last=Paracha|first=Nadeem F.|work=Scroll.in|access-date=9 January 2018}}</ref> Arab tribes became rebellious in Sindh in the early 9th century during the Abbasid period. During a period of strife in 841-2 between [[Yemeni]] and [[Hijazi]] tribes, 'Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-[[Habbari dynasty|Habbari]]'s Hijazi faction assassinated the pro-Yemeni [[Abbasid]] governor of Sindh, Imran bin Musa [[Barmakids|Barmaki]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nadvi|first=Syed Sulaiman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WcMgAAAAMAAJ&q=imran+habarri|title=Indo-Arab Relations: An English Rendering of Arab Oʾ Hind Ke Taʾllugat|date=1962|publisher=Institute of Indo-Middle East Cultural Studies|language=en}}</ref> leaving Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari as the ''de facto'' governor of Sindh. According to [[Ya'qubi|al-Ya'qubi]], Umar's request to be formally appointed governor was granted in 854 by the Abbasid caliph [[Al-Mutawakkil]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Boivin|first=Michel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXYMAQAAMAAJ&q=habbari+sindh|title=Sindh Through History and Representations: French Contributions to Sindhi Studies|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-547503-6|language=en}}</ref> {{cn span|text=Following the death of Al-Mutawakkil in 861, 'Umar bin Aziz al-Habbari then established himself as an independent ruler, although he continued to read the Friday prayers in the name of the Abbasid caliph, thereby nominally pledging allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad. |date=November 2022}}
-By the mid-800s, the ''Banu Munabbih'' (also known as the ''Banu Sama''), who claimed descent from the Prophet Muhammad's [[Quraysh]] tribe came to rule Multan, and established the Emirate, which ruled for the next century.<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite book|last1=Rafiq|first1=A.Q.|last2=Baloch|first2=N.A.|title=The Regions of Sind, Baluchistan, Multan and Kashmir: The Historical, Social and Economic Setting |publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-103467-1|url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_IVa%20silk%20road_the%20regions%20of%20sind,%20baluchistan,%20multan%20and%20kashmir.pdf}}</ref> At the opening of 10th century, [[Ahmad ibn Rustah|Ibn Rusta]] was first to report a well established [[Emirate of Multan]]. Muhammad III, whose full name was Muhammad bin al-Qasim bin Munabbih, was reported by  [[Al-Biruni]] to be the first of the Banu Munabbih (Samid) rulers of Multan - he conquered Multan and issued silver dammas bearing his Hindu epithet "Mihiradeva" ("Sun god") on the reverse.<ref name="UNESCO"/> By the mid 10th century, Multan had come under the influence of the [[Qarmatian]]s. The Qarmatians had been expelled from [[Egypt]] and [[Iraq]] following their defeat at the hands of the Abbasids there. They wrested control of the city from the pro-Abbasid Amirate of Banu Munabbih,<ref name="[[Muhammad Osimi|Osimi]]">{{cite book|last1=Osimi|first1=Muhammad|title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia (vol. 4, part-1)|year=1992|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass, 1992|isbn=9788120815957|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lodSckjlNuMC&q=multan+sun+jalam+al-biruni&pg=PA297}}</ref> and pledged allegiance to the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] based in  [[Cairo]] instead of [[Abbasid Caliphate]] at [[Baghdad]].<ref name="c">{{cite book |author=H. A. Rose |title=A glossary of the tribes and castes of the Punjab and North-West |volume=1 |year=1997 |orig-year=First published 1883 |pages=489|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=9788185297682|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aw3hRAX_DgC&q=sun+temple+of+multan&pg=PA489}}</ref> By the end of the 10th century CE, the region was ruled by several [[Hindu Shahi]] kings who would be subdued by the [[Ghaznavids]]. [[Sabuktigin]]'s son, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], expanded the Ghaznavid Empire to the [[Amu Darya]], the Indus River and the Indian Ocean in the east and to [[Rey, Iran|Rey]] and [[Hamadan]] in the west. Under the reign of [[Mas'ud I of Ghazni|Mas'ud I]], the Ghaznavid dynasty began losing control over its western territories to the [[Seljuk dynasty]] after the [[Battle of Dandanaqan]], resulting in a restriction of its holdings to modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan ([[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] and [[Balochistan]]).
-Sunni Islam arrived in [[North India]] in the 12th century via the invasions of [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids conquest]]. [[Ala al-Din Husayn]]'s nephews, however, [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad]] and [[Muhammad of Ghor]] expanded the Ghurid domains on an unprecedented scale. While, Ghiyasuddin was occupied with the Ghurid expansion in the west, his sibling Muhammad of Ghor along with his Turkic slaves began [[Indian campaigns of Muhammad of Ghor|raiding in the east]] and by the turn of the twlefth century expanded the Ghurid empire till [[Bengal]] in the east, while the Ghurids reached till [[Gorgan]] in the west under Ghiyath al-Din Ghori. The foundation of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] was laid by the [[Ghurid Empire|Ghurid conqueror]] Muhammad Ghori who routed the [[Rajput|Rajput Confederacy]] led by Ajmer ruler [[Prithviraj Chauhan]] in [[Second Battle of Tarain|1192 near Tarain]], after suffering a reverse against [[First Battle of Tarain|them earlier]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Sugata Bose|author1-link=Sugata Bose|author2=Ayesha Jalal|author2-link=Ayesha Jalal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ihNtzxy5GEC&q=Rajput|title=Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy|date=2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-30786-4|page=21|quote=It was a similar combination of political and economic imperatives which led Muhmmad Ghuri, a Turk, to invade India a century and half later in 1192. His defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan, a Rajput chieftain, in the strategic battle of Tarain in northern India paved the way for the establishment of first Muslim sultante|language=en}}</ref> As a successor to the Ghurid dynasty, the Delhi Sultanate was originally one among a number of principalities ruled by the [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] slave-generals of Muhammad Ghori, including [[Taj al-Din Yildiz|Yildiz]], [[Qutb al-Din Aibak|Aibak]] and [[Nasir ad-Din Qabacha|Qubacha]], that had inherited and divided the Ghurid territories amongst themselves.<ref>{{cite book |author = K. A. Nizami |author-link = K. A. Nizami |title = A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206-1526) |volume=5 |edition = 2nd |page = 198 |year=1992 |publisher=The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ }}</ref> After a long period of [[Civil war|infighting]], the [[Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluks]] were overthrown in the [[Khalji dynasty|Khalji]] revolution, which marked the transfer of power from the Turks to a [[Homogeneity and heterogeneity|heterogeneous]] Indo-Muslim nobility.<ref name="aziz1939">{{cite journal |author = Mohammad Aziz Ahmad |title = The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India. (1206-1290 A.d.) |journal = Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |publisher= Indian History Congress |year = 1939 |volume = 3 |pages = 832–841 |jstor = 44252438 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&q=factional%20infighting%20khalji&pg=PA159 |title = Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One |author = Satish Chandra |publisher = Har-Anand Publications |year = 2004 |isbn= 9788124110645 }}</ref> [[Alauddin Khalji|Khalji]] and [[Muhammad bin Tughlaq|Tughlaq]] rule saw a new wave of rapid [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Muslim conquests]] deep into [[South India]].<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bodaohHyDRcC&dq=tughlaq+deccan+south+india&pg=PA28 |title= Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy |date= 1998 |author=  Sugata Bose, Ayesha Jalal |page= 28 |publisher= Psychology Press |isbn= 9780415169523 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=M.S. Ahluwalia |editor1=Shyam Singh Ratnawat |editor2=Krishna Gopal Sharma |year=1999 |chapter=Rajput Muslim Relations (1200-1526 A.D.) |title=History and Culture of Rajasthan (From Earliest Times upto 1956 A.D.) |publisher=Centre for Rajasthan Studies, University of Rajasthan |page=135 |oclc=264960720 |quote=The Khaiji rule proved much stronger for the Rajput principalities ... A new wave of invasions and conquests began, which ended only when practically the whole of India had been bought under the sway of the Delhi kingdom.}}</ref> The sultanate finally reached the peak of its geographical reach during the Tughlaq dynasty, occupying most of the [[Indian subcontinent]] under [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]].<ref name=ebmit>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396460/Muhammad-ibn-Tughluq Muḥammad ibn Tughluq] Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> This was followed by decline due to [[Hindus|Hindu]] reconquests, Hindu kingdoms such as the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] asserting independence, and new [[Muslims|Muslim]] sultanates such as the [[Bengal Sultanate]] breaking off.{{Sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=177}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Vincent A. |author1-link=Vincent Arthur Smith |title=The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p2gxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA217 |year=1920 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=217}}</ref> In 1526, [[First Battle of Panipat|the Sultanate was conquered and succeeded]] by the [[Mughal Empire]]. According to [[Ibn Batuta]], the Khaljis encouraged conversion to [[Islam]] by making it a custom to have the convert presented to the Sultan who would place a robe on the convert and award him with bracelets of gold.<ref>{{cite book |author=Thomas Walker Arnold |year=1913 |title=The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith |page=212}}</ref> During Delhi Sultanate's [[Ikhtiyar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji|Ikhtiyar Uddin Bakhtiyar Khilji's]] control of Bengal, Muslim missionaries in India achieved their greatest success, in terms of number of converts to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |author=Thomas Walker Arnold |year=1913 |title=The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith |pages=227-228}}</ref>
-The Mughal Empire was able to conquer almost the entirety of South Asia. Although religious tolerance was seen during the rule of emperor [[Akbar]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Roy |title=Mawlana Mawdudi and Political Islam: Authority and the Islamic State |year=2010 |publisher=Routledge |pages=9, 11 |isbn=978-1-136-95036-0}}</ref> the reign under emperor [[Aurangzeb]] witnessed the full establishment of Islamic [[sharia]] and the re-introduction of [[Jizya]] (a special tax imposed upon non-Muslims) through the compilation of the [[Fatawa-e-Alamgiri]].<ref name="jm">Jamal Malik (2008), Islam in South Asia: A Short History, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004168596}}, pp. 194-197</ref> The Mughals, already suffering a gradual decline in the early 18th century, was [[Nader Shah's invasion of India|invaded]] by the [[Afsharid dynasty|Afsharid]] ruler [[Nader Shah]].<ref name="Browne">{{Cite web|url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=90001014&ct=33|title=An Outline of the History of Persia During the Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722-1922)|page=33|work=Edward G. Browne|publisher=Packard Humanities Institute|location=London|access-date=2010-09-24}}</ref> The Mughal decline provided opportunities for the [[Maratha Empire]], [[Sikh Empire]], [[Mysore Kingdom]], [[Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad]] and [[Nizams of Hyderabad]] to exercise control over large regions of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of State and Religion in India|author1=Ian Copland|author2=Ian Mabbett|author3= Asim Roy|author4=Kate Brittlebank|author5=Adam Bowles|page=161|display-authors=3|publisher=Routledge|year=2012}}</ref> Eventually, after numerous wars sapped its strength, the Mughal Empire was broken into smaller powers like Shia [[Nawab of Bengal]], the [[Nawab of Awadh]], the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]], and the [[Kingdom of Mysore]], which became the major Asian economic and military power on the Indian subcontinent.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} Muslim power quickly vaporized in the early 18th century after their defeat in [[Mughal-Maratha Wars|wars]]<ref>{{cite book |title=History of India from the earliest period to the close of the East India Company's Government |author=John Clark Marshman |year=2010 |orig-year=First published 1876 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108021043 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmT_Tv-VGUC&pg=PA93}}</ref> and [[Capture of Agra Fort|attacks]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATpFImGZdVEC&pg=PA220|title=In the Shadow of the Taj: A Portrait of Agra|last=Grewal|first=Royina|publisher=Penguin Books India|year=2007|isbn=978-0-1431-0265-6}}</ref> Mughals were replaced with [[Rajputs]], the [[Marathas]], [[Sikhs]] in Punjab, the Jats and smaller [[Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent|Muslim states]] competing for power with the [[British East India Company]]. Islamic scholars reacted slowly to the British rule. The [[British Empire|British authorities']] [[westernisation]] policies effectively destroyed the exclusive hold of the [[ulama]] over education and curtailed their administrative influence. After Mughal India's collapse, [[Tipu Sultan]]'s Kingdom of Mysore based in South India, which witnessed partial establishment of sharia-based economic and military policies i.e. [[Fathul Mujahidin]], replaced Bengal ruled by the [[Nawabs of Bengal]] as South Asia's foremost economic territory.<ref name="mehta">{{Cite book |last=Binita Mehta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wK1fAwgOercC&pg=PA110 |title=Widows, Pariahs, and Bayadères: India as Spectacle |publisher=[[Bucknell University Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8387-5455-9 |pages=110–111}}</ref><ref name="pande">{{Cite book |last=B. N. Pande |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgbXAAAAMAAJ |title=Aurangzeb and Tipu Sultan: Evaluation of Their Religious Policies |publisher=[[University of Michigan]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-85220-38-3}}</ref> The partition was outlined in the [[Indian Independence Act 1947]] and resulted in the dissolution of the [[British Raj]], i.e., Crown rule in India. [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]], the last major Muslim princely state, was [[Annexation of Hyderabad|annexed]] in 1948 by the modern [[Republic Of India|Republic of India]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=B. Cohen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZKHDAAAQBAJ |title=Kingship and Colonialism in India's Deccan: 1850-1948 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|year=2007 |isbn=978-0-230-60344-8 |pages=159–161}}</ref>
-[[File:A panorama in 12 folds showing the procession of the Emperor Bahadur Shah to celebrate the feast of the 'Id., 1843.jpg|thumb|800px|center|{{center|A panorama in 12 folds showing a fabulous Eid ul-Fitr procession by [[Muslims]] in the [[Mughal Empire]].}}]]
-===Modern states (1947 - Present)===
-{{main|List of national constitutions#Codified constitutions (most recent, in use today)|Hindu–Islamic relations|Pakistan|Bangladesh|Afghanistan|Grand Mufti of India}}
-The two self-governing independent [[Dominion of India|Dominions of India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]] legally came into existence at midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The [[partition of India]] displaced between 10 and 20 million people along religious lines with estimates of the loss of life up to two million in the newly constituted [[dominions]]. The [[Two-nation theory|ideological character of Pakistan]] has been disputed, with [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah's 11 August Speech|Jinnah's 11 August speech]] apparently supportive of the notion that the state was formed simply to protect Muslim interests but the [[ulama]] envisioning Pakistan as an [[Islamic state]]. After [[1970 Pakistani general election|Pakistan's general election]], the [[1973 constitution of pakistan|1973 Constitution]] was created by the elected [[Parliament of Pakistan|Parliament]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WG-pAgAAQBAJ&q=1973+constitution+pakistan+islam&pg=PA196|title=Islam, Law and Identity|last1=Diamantides|first1=Marinos|last2=Gearey|first2=Adam|publisher=Routledge|year=2011|isbn=9781136675652|pages=196}}</ref> which declared Pakistan as an [[Islamic Republic]] and Islam as its [[state religion]]. In the years preceding [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq|Zia-ul-Haq]]'s [[Operation Fair Play|coup]], Pakistan's leftist Prime Minister [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] faced vigorous opposition under the [[Islamic revival|revivalist]] banner of ''Nizam-e-Mustafa'' ("Rule of the [[Muhammad|prophet]]").<ref name="nasr-453">{{cite book |last1=Nasr |first1=Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr |url=https://archive.org/details/mawdudimakingisl00nasr |title=Mawdudi and the Making of Islamic Revivalism |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0195096959 |location=New York, Oxford |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mawdudimakingisl00nasr/page/n55 45]–6 |url-access=limited}}</ref> After Zia-ul-Haq's [[Islamization in Pakistan|Islamisation]] and [[Pervez Musharraf|Musharraf's]] military rule, the [[2008 Pakistani general election|2008 election]] brought back regular [[List of political parties in Pakistan#National Assembly and Senate members|political parties]] instead of the religious parties.
-In Afghanistan, the 1931 Constitution made [[Hanafi]] [[Shariah]] the state religion, while the [[1964 Constitution of Afghanistan|1964 Constitution]] simply prescribed that the state should conduct its religious ritual according to the Hanafi school. The 1977 Constitution declared Islam the religion of Afghanistan, but made no mention that the state ritual should be Hanafi. In Bangladesh, Islam became the state religion by a [[constitutional amendment]] in 1988. For Muslims in India, Pakistan was a triumph which instantly turned into a defeat.{{Sfn|Hardy|1972|p=254}} By voting in the 1945-6 elections they had stated that Islam required a state of its own.{{Sfn|Hardy|1972|p=254-255}} But they were to live an Islamic life without fulfillment after 1947.{{Sfn|Hardy|1972|p=255}} India, unusually for new countries in the 1950s, successfully sustained a lively democracy. Muslims in the 1960s voted for the Congress, which solicited them, but since then have voted for whichever party appears likely to cater to Muslim interests. Muslims were stereotyped negatively with disloyalty and Pakistani sympathies, particularly after the 1980s. This was partially a tactic to unite Hindus and partly a surrogate for government opposition.{{Sfn|Metcalf|2009|p=31}} [[Hindu nationalism|Hindu nationalist]] groups and complicit state officials campaigned against the [[Babri Mosque]], allegedly constructed on [[Rama]]'s birthplace.{{Sfn|Metcalf|2009|p=31}} A pogrom took place in Gujarat in 2002.{{Sfn|Metcalf|2009|p=31-32}} The defeat of the [[BJP]] brought in a more accommodating government under which a committee was created on the Muslims' socio-economic status. The committee's Sachar report refuted the perception of Muslim "appeasement" by showing the poor and underrepresented status of India's Muslims. Despite individual cases of success, the report pointed out significant barriers faced by the large Muslim population.{{Sfn|Metcalf|2009|p=32}} In India, the administration of Islamic affairs in each [[States and union territories of India|state]] is headed by the ''Mufti of the State'' under the supervision of the [[Grand Mufti of India]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}
 ==Conversions==
@@ Line 87: / Line 64: @@
 The Islamic ambitions of the [[sultans]] and [[Mughal dynasty|Mughals]] had concentrated in expanding Muslim power and looting, not in seeking converts. Evidence of the absence of systematic programs for conversion is the reason for the concentration of South Asia's Muslim populations outside the main core of the Muslim polities{{Sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2002|p=6}} in the northeast and northwest regions of the subcontinent, which were on the peripheries of Muslim states.{{Sfn|Eaton|1993|p=115}}
-The Sufis did not preach egalitarianism, but played an important role in integrating agricultural settlements with the larger contemporary cultures. In areas where Sufis received grants and supervised clearing of forestry, they had the role of mediating with worldly and divine authority. [[Richard M. Eaton]] has described the significance of this in the context of [[West Punjab]] and [[East Bengal]], the two main areas to develop Muslim majorities.{{Sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2002|p=7}} The partition was eventually made possible because of the concentration of Muslim majorities in northwest and northeast India.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=27}} The overwhelming majority of the subcontinent's Muslims live in regions which became Pakistan in 1947.{{Sfn|Eaton|1993|p=119}}
+The Sufis did not preach egalitarianism, but played an important role in integrating agricultural settlements with the larger contemporary cultures. In areas where Sufis received grants and supervised clearing of forestry, they had the role of mediating with worldly and divine authority. [[Richard M. Eaton]] has described the significance of this in the context of [[West Punjab]] and [[East Bengal]], the two main areas to develop Muslim majorities.{{Sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2002|p=7}} The [[Partition of India|partition]] was eventually made possible because of the concentration of Muslim majorities in northwest and northeast India.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=27}} The overwhelming majority of the subcontinent's Muslims live in regions which became Pakistan in 1947.{{Sfn|Eaton|1993|p=119}}
 These nominal conversions to Islam, brought about by regional Muslim polities, were followed by [[Islamic modernism|reforms]], especially after the 17th century, in which Muslims integrated with the larger Muslim world. Improved transport services in the nineteenth century brought Muslim masses into contact with Mecca, which facilitated reformist movements stressing [[Quranic literalism]] and making people aware of the differences between Islamic commands and their actual practices.{{Sfn|Eaton|1985|p=121}}
-Islamic reformist movements, such as the [[Faraizi movement]], in the nineteenth century rural Bengal aimed to remove indigenous folk practices from Bengali Islam and commit the population exclusively to Allah and Muhammad.{{Sfn|Eaton|1993|p=282}} Politically the reform aspect of conversion, emphasizing exclusiveness, continued with the Pakistan movement for a separate Muslim state{{Sfn|Eaton|1985|p=121}} and a cultural aspect was the assumption of [[Arab culture]].{{Sfn|Eaton|1985|p=122}}
+Islamic reformist movements, such as the [[Faraizi movement]], in the nineteenth century rural Bengal aimed to remove indigenous folk practices from Bengali Islam and commit the population exclusively to Allah and Muhammad.{{Sfn|Eaton|1993|p=282}} Politically the reform aspect of conversion, emphasizing exclusiveness, continued with the [[Pakistan movement]] for a separate Muslim state{{Sfn|Eaton|1985|p=121}} and a cultural aspect was the assumption of [[Arab culture]].{{Sfn|Eaton|1985|p=122}}
 ==Demographics==
 {{main|Islam by country}}
 {{bar box
+|title= Muslim Percentage by Country
-|title= Muslims Percentage by Country<ref name="AfgCIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/ |title=CIA – The World Factbook – Afghanistan |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=27 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="pewforum.org">{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewforum.org/interactives/muslim-population-graphic/#/Bangladesh|title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|date=15 January 2011|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=24 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="IndCIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bhutan/ |title=CIA – The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=27 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ |title=Indian Census |publisher=Censusindia.gov.in |access-date=23 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070514045222/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ |archive-date=14 May 2007}}</ref><ref name=EmoryLaw>{{cite web|url=http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/legal/maldives.htm |title=Maldives |publisher=Law.emory.edu |date=21 February 1920 |access-date=23 August 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://countrystudies.us/maldives/7.htm Maldives – Religion], ''countrystudies.us''</ref><ref name="cia.gov">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nepal/|title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|access-date=24 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="PakCIA">[http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/pco/statistics/other_tables/pop_by_religion.pdf Population by religions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060617205811/http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/pco/statistics/other_tables/pop_by_religion.pdf |date=17 June 2006}}, [[Statistics Division of the Government of Pakistan]]</ref><ref name="SriCIA">{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/census2001/population/ds_div/t001b.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513050552/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/census2001/population/ds_div/t001b.htm |archive-date=13 May 2007 |title=Table 1 |date=13 May 2007 |access-date=23 August 2010}}</ref>
 |titlebar=#ddd
 |left1='''Country'''
@@ Line 102: / Line 79: @@
 |float=right
 |bars=
+{{bar percent| {{flag|Maldives}}<ref name=EmoryLaw>{{cite web |url=http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/legal/maldives.htm |title=Maldives |publisher=Law.emory.edu |date=21 February 1920 |access-date=23 August 2010 |archive-date=11 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130211221153/http://www.law.emory.edu/ifl/legal/maldives.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://countrystudies.us/maldives/7.htm Maldives – Religion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114182245/http://countrystudies.us/maldives/7.htm |date=14 November 2020 }}, ''countrystudies.us''</ref> |green|100}}
-{{bar percent| {{flag|Maldives}} |green|100}}
+{{bar percent| {{flag|Afghanistan}}<ref name="AfgCIA">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/ |title=CIA – The World Factbook – Afghanistan |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=27 March 2012 |archive-date=4 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210104184342/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |green|99.7}}
-{{bar percent| {{flag|Afghanistan}} |green|99.7}}
+{{bar percent| {{flag|Pakistan}}<ref name="PakCIA">[http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/pco/statistics/other_tables/pop_by_religion.pdf Population by religions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060617205811/http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/pco/statistics/other_tables/pop_by_religion.pdf |date=17 June 2006}}, [[Statistics Division of the Government of Pakistan]]</ref> |green|96.47}}
-{{bar percent| {{flag|Pakistan}} |green|96.47}}
+{{bar percent| {{flag|Bangladesh}}<ref name="pewforum.org">{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewforum.org/interactives/muslim-population-graphic/#/Bangladesh|title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|date=15 January 2011|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=24 May 2017|archive-date=24 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170524215707/http://www.pewforum.org/interactives/muslim-population-graphic/#/Bangladesh|url-status=live}}</ref> |green|91.04}}
-{{bar percent| {{flag|Bangladesh}} |green|91.04}}
+{{bar percent| {{flag|India}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ |title=Indian Census |publisher=Censusindia.gov.in |access-date=23 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070514045222/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ |archive-date=14 May 2007}}</ref> |#0FFF50|14.12}}
-{{bar percent| {{flag|India}} |#0FFF50|15.0}}
+{{bar percent| {{flag|Sri Lanka}}<ref name="SriCIA">{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/census2001/population/ds_div/t001b.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513050552/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/census2001/population/ds_div/t001b.htm |archive-date=13 May 2007 |title=Table 1 |date=13 May 2007 |access-date=23 August 2010}}</ref> |#0FFF50|9.8}}
-{{bar percent| {{flag|Sri Lanka}} |#0FFF50|9.8}}
+{{bar percent| {{flag|Nepal}}<ref name="cia.gov">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nepal/|title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|access-date=24 May 2017|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109075733/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nepal/|url-status=live}}</ref> |#0FFF50|5.09}}
-{{bar percent| {{flag|Nepal}} |#0FFF50|5.09}}
 {{bar percent| {{flag|Bhutan}} |#0FFF50|0.1}}
 }}
-Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and the Maldives are Muslim-majority countries. Muslim population in India is 14.5% which still makes them the largest Muslim population outside the Muslim-majority countries.{{Sfn|Metcalf|2009|p=xvii–xviii}}
+Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and the Maldives are Muslim-majority countries. The Muslim population in India is 14.12%, which still makes it the largest Muslim population outside the Muslim-majority countries.{{Sfn|Metcalf|2009|p=xvii–xviii}}
-==Controversy==
-{{Excerpt|Caste system among South Asian Muslims|templates=0|references=0}}
 ==See also==
@@ Line 146: / Line 120: @@
 === Sources ===
 {{refbegin|}}
-* {{citation |last1=Asher |first1=Catherine B. |last2=Talbot |first2=Cynthia |title=India Before Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80904-7}}
+* {{citation |last1=Asher |first1=Catherine B. |last2=Talbot |first2=Cynthia |title=India Before Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80904-7 |access-date=26 December 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329124219/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC |url-status=live }}
-* {{citation |last=Delage |first=Remy |title=Muslim Castes in India |journal=Books & Ideas |date=29 September 2014 |publisher=College De France |url=https://booksandideas.net/Muslim-Castes-in-India.html}}
+* {{citation |last=Delage |first=Remy |title=Muslim Castes in India |journal=Books & Ideas |date=29 September 2014 |publisher=College De France |url=https://booksandideas.net/Muslim-Castes-in-India.html }}
 * {{citation |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard |editor=Richard C. Martin |title=Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies |edition=1st |year=1985 |publisher=Tucson: University of Arizona PressB |pages=107–123 |chapter=Approaches to the Study of Conversion to Islam in India}}
-* {{citation |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard Maxwell |title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H76-23A9GUYC |year=1993 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-08077-5}}
+* {{citation |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard Maxwell |title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H76-23A9GUYC |year=1993 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-08077-5 }}
-* {{citation |last1=Hardy |first1=Peter |title=The Muslims of British India |year=1972 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-09783-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsofbritish0000hard}}
+* {{citation |last1=Hardy |first1=Peter |title=The Muslims of British India |year=1972 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-09783-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsofbritish0000hard }}
 * {{citation |last1=Jalal |first1=Ayesha |last2=Bose |first2=Sugata |title=Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy |edition=1st |year=1998 |publisher=Sang-e-Meel Publications}}
-* {{citation |last1=Jalal |first1=Ayesha |title=The Struggle for Pakistan: A Muslim Homeland and Global Politics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xzGOBAAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-05289-5}}
+* {{citation |last1=Jalal |first1=Ayesha |title=The Struggle for Pakistan: A Muslim Homeland and Global Politics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xzGOBAAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-05289-5 }}
-* {{citation |last=Khanam |first=Azra |title=Muslim Backward Classes: A Sociological Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sdz9AAAAQBAJ |publisher=SAGE |year=2013 |isbn=978-81-321-1650-9}}
+* {{citation |last=Khanam |first=Azra |title=Muslim Backward Classes: A Sociological Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sdz9AAAAQBAJ |publisher=SAGE |year=2013 |isbn=978-81-321-1650-9 |access-date=31 January 2023 |archive-date=31 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131234913/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sdz9AAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
-* {{citation |last1=Kugle |first1=Scott A. |editor=Richard C. Martin |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World: M–Z, index |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TTUOAQAAMAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |isbn=978-0-02-865605-2 |pages=634–641 |chapter=Islam in South Asia}}
+* {{citation |last1=Kugle |first1=Scott A. |editor=Richard C. Martin |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World: M–Z, index |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TTUOAQAAMAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |isbn=978-0-02-865605-2 |pages=634–641 |chapter=Islam in South Asia }}
 * {{citation |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |author1-link=Hermann Kulke |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |author2-link=Dietmar Rothermund |title=A History of India |year=2004 |orig-year=First published 1986 |edition=4th |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-32919-1}}
-* {{citation |last=Levesque |first=Julien |title=Debates on Muslim Caste in North India and Pakistan |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02697381 |year=2020 |publisher=HAL}}
+* {{citation |last=Levesque |first=Julien |title=Debates on Muslim Caste in North India and Pakistan |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02697381 |year=2020 |publisher=HAL |access-date=5 November 2022 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001180338/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02697381 |url-status=live }}
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+* {{cite encyclopedia |author1=Muzaffar Alam |author1-link=Muzaffar Alam |author2=Phillip B. Calkins |title=India |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-early-Turkish-sultans#ref46904 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |article=North India under Muslim hegemony, c. 1200–1526 |access-date=17 January 2019 |archive-date=14 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814161923/https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-early-Turkish-sultans#ref46904 |url-status=live }}
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+{{refend}}
+{{Asia in topic|Islam in}}
+{{South Asian topics}}
+{{Islam topics}}
-{{refend}}{{South Asian topics}}
 [[Category:Islam in South Asia| ]]
-[[Category:Religion in South Asia]]
-[[Category:Islam in Asia]]
-[[Category:South Asia]]

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