Atmospheric satellite: Difference between revisions
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Marc Lacoste (talk | contribs) reorganised: 1. Definitions 2. History 3. Design 4. Applications 5. Airplanes (5.1 Operational 5.2 Prototypes 5.3 Concepts, ordered by date) 6. Airships 7. Balloons 8. Rotorcraft |
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To date, all atmosats have been [[unmanned aerial vehicle]]s (UAVs). |
To date, all atmosats have been [[unmanned aerial vehicle]]s (UAVs). |
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==Definitions== |
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An atmosat remains aloft through atmospheric lift, in contrast to a satellite in [[Earth orbit]] which moves freely at high speed in the vacuum of space, and orbits due to its centrifugal force matching the force of gravity. Satellites are expensive to build and launch, and any changes to their orbit requires expending their extremely limited fuel supply. Atmospheric satellites fly very slowly. They are intended to provide their various services more economically and with more versatility than current [[low Earth orbit]] satellites.<ref name=TechCrunch20140304/> |
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; High-altitude long endurance (HALE) |
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Operating altitudes are expected to be in the [[tropopause]]—at approximately 65,000 feet—where winds are generally less than 5 knots and clouds do not block sunlight.<ref name=Fortune20130823>{{cite web|last=Dillow |first=Clay |title=The drone that may never have to land |url=http://fortune.com/2013/08/23/the-drone-that-may-never-have-to-land/ |work= Fortune (CNN) |date=August 23, 2013 }}</ref> It is desirable in the United States to operate above 60,000 feet, above which the Federal Aviation Administration does not regulate the airspace.<ref name=Fortune20130823/> |
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: an [[airplane]] which functions optimally at high-[[altitude]] (as high as 60,000 feet)<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.defenseone.com/defense-systems/2015/05/future-of-unmanned-capabilities-male-vs-hale/191177/ |title=Future of unmanned capabilities: MALE vs HALE |first=Mark |last=Pomerleau |date=2015-05-27 |work= Defense One |publisher= [[Government Executive]]}}</ref> and is capable of flights which last for considerable periods of time without recourse to landing. The [[tropopause]] represents high-altitude.<ref>{{cite magazine |url= https://defense-update.com/20070220_auvsi07_5hale.html |title= HALE UAVs Come of Age |date= Feb 20, 2007 |magazine= [[Defense Update]]}}</ref> |
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; High-altitude platform station (HAPS) |
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There are two classes of atmosat, respectively gaining their lift through either [[aerostat]]ic (e.g., [[balloon (aeronautics)|balloons]]) or [[lift (force)|aerodynamic]] (e.g., [[airplane]]s) forces. In order to remain aloft for long periods, the NASA and Titan Aerospace designs use propeller-driven [[electric airplane]]s powered by [[solar cell]]s, in contrast to [[Google]]'s [[Project Loon]] which envisions using helium-filled [[high-altitude balloon]]s.<ref name=TechCrunch20140304/> |
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: defined by the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) as "''a [[radio station|station]] on an object at an altitude of 20 to 50 km and at a specified, nominal, fixed point relative to the Earth''" in its [[ITU Radio Regulations]] (RR).<ref>{{cite book |url= https://life.itu.int/radioclub/rr/art1.pdf |work= [[ITU Radio Regulations]] |chapter= IV. Radio Stations and Systems |title= Article 1.66A, definition: ''high altitude platform station''}}</ref> HAPS can also be the abbreviation for '''high-altitude pseudo-satellite'''. |
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{{see also|Radio station|Radiocommunication service|Airship}} |
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==History== |
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===Airplanes=== <!-- Let's keep it brief and specific to the atmosat CONCEPT — not UAVs in general and NOT too many details of specific atmosats that have their own articles --> |
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The idea of HALE was acknowledged in technical papers as early as 1983, with ''A Preliminary Study of Solar Powered Aircraft and Associated Power Trains'' written by Lockheed for the NASA,<ref name=Nasa1jan2007>{{cite report |url= https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20070004936/downloads/20070004936.pdf |author=C.L. Nickol |display-authors= etal |title= High Altitude Long Endurance Air Vehicle Analysis of Alternatives and Technology Requirements Development |publisher= [[NASA]] |date= January 1, 2007}}</ref> the actual state of affairs within technology of a time during the 1970s, allowed for scientists to later consider the possibility of Long endurance flight as a conceivable inclusion to aviation of [[suborbital]] spacecraft.<ref>{{cite journal |author= D.W. Hall (Lockheed) |display-authors= etal |url= https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19840005126/downloads/19840005126.pdf |title= A Preliminary Study of Solar Powered Aircraft and Associated Power Trains |publisher= NASA Langley Research Centre |date= December 1983}}</ref> One of the first papers to explicitly mention ''Long Endurance'' is J.W.Youngblood, T.A. Talay & R.J. Pegg ''Design of Long Endurance Unmanned Airplanes Incorporating Solar and fuel cell propulsion'', published 1984.<ref name=Nasa1jan2007/> An early paper which incorporates both high-altitude and long-endurance as the area of investigation, is M.D. Maughmer ([[Pennsylvania State University]]) and D.M. Somers ([[Langley Research Center|NASA Langley]]) ''Design and experimental results for a high-altitude, long-endurance airfoil''. The authors state interest in development of such a craft lay in the need to fulfill communication relay missions, weather monitoring, and to obtain information for the targeting of [[cruise missiles]]. This paper was published in the year 1989.<ref>{{cite journal |author1= M.D. Maughmer |author2= D.M. Somers |url= http://arc.aiaa.org/doi/abs/10.2514/3.45736?journalCode=ja |title= Design and experimental results for a high-altitude, long-endurance airfoil |journal= Journal of Aircraft |volume= 26 |number= 2 |date= February 1989 |publisher= [[American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics]] Association}}</ref> |
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To enable night time operation and ensure endurance through consecutive 24-hour day/night cycles, in daylight hours solar panels charge batteries<ref name=Fortune20130823/> or fuel cells<ref name=NASAheliosFact/> which subsequently power the vehicle during hours of darkness. An atmospheric satellite may initially ascend at night under battery power, and reach altitude soon after dawn to allow solar panels to take advantage of a full day's sunlight.<ref name=TechCrunch20140304>{{cite news|last1=Perez |first1=Sarah |last2=Constine |first2=Josh |title=Facebook In Talks To Acquire Drone Maker Titan Aerospace |url=http://techcrunch.com/2014/03/03/facebook-in-talks-to-acquire-drone-maker-titan-aerospace/ |work=TechCrunch |date=March 4, 2014 }}</ref> |
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The research paper, ''Strikestar 2025'', written for the USAF and presented in July 1996, foresaw routine HALE-UAV operations happening within the early 21st century. In contemplation of a future of the military, projected to 2025, the authors thought a HALE in flight for 24 hours. Long endurance ("long-loiter") is held synonymous with the concept of maintaining air occupation, "the ability to hold an adversary continuously at risk from lethal and non-lethal effects from the air".<ref name=USAFaug1996>{{cite report |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151210233133if_/http://csat.au.af.mil/2025/volume3/vol3ch13.pdf |author= B.W. Carmichael |display-authors= etal |title=Strikestar 2025 |publisher= The U.S. Air-force |date= August 1996 }}</ref> |
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====Facebook Aquila==== |
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The [[Defense Airborne Reconnaissance Office]] at some time made demonstrations of long-endurance UAV craft.<ref name=USAFaug1996/> |
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[[Facebook]]'s UAV-based [[Facebook Aquila|Aquila system]] expects to use [[Free-space optical communication|laser communication]] technology to provide Internet communication among UAVs, and also between UAVs and ground stations that in turn will connect to rural areas.<ref name=IEEEspectrum20160413/> The Aquila UAV is a carbon fiber, solar-powered [[flying wing]] design about the size of a passenger jet.<ref name=IEEEspectrum20160413>{{cite news |last1=Perry |first1=Tekla S. |title=Facebook's Aquila Drone Creates a Laser-net In the Sky |url= https://spectrum.ieee.org/facebooks-aquila-drone-creates-a-lasernet-in-the-sky |website=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|IEEE]] Spectrum |date=April 13, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Gershgorn |first1=Dave |title=Facebook's Enormous Internet Drone is Almost Ready for Primetime |url= https://www.popsci.com/facebooks-full-scale-internet-drone-is-almost-ready-for-primetime/ |magazine=Popular Science |date=February 23, 2016 }}</ref><ref name=wired21july2016>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2016/07/facebooks-giant-internet-beaming-drone-finally-takes-flight/|title=Facebook's Giant Internet-Beaming Drone Finally Takes Flight|last=Metz|first=Cade|date=21 July 2016|magazine=Wired}}</ref> Aquila's first test flight took place on June 28, 2016.<ref name=wired21july2016 /> It flew for ninety minutes, reaching a maximum altitude of 2150 feet,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/12/20/14029580/facebook-aquila-drone-crash-aviation-experts-criticism|title=Facebook's drone test flight ended with part of the wing snapping off|last=Newton|first=Casey|date=2016-12-16|website=The Verge}}</ref> and was substantially damaged when a twenty-foot section of the righthand wing broke off during final approach to landing.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://data.ntsb.gov/Docket/?NTSBNumber=DCA16CA197 |title= Aviation Investigation - DCA16CA197 |publisher= NTSB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= https://engineering.fb.com/2016/12/16/connectivity/reviewing-aquila-s-first-full-scale-test-flight/ |title=Reviewing Aquila's first full-scale test flight|work= Engineering at Meta|date=16 December 2016}}</ref> The Aquila is designed and manufactured by the UK company Ascenta.<ref>{{cite news |author= Rory Cellan-Jones |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-36855168 |title= Facebook's drones - made in Britain |publisher= BBC |date= 21 July 2016}}</ref> |
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In 2002, G. Frulla wrote a paper on very long endurance.<ref>{{cite conference |author= G Frulla |url= https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1243/09544100260369722 |title= Preliminary reliability design of a solar-powered high-altitude very long endurance unmanned air vehicle |conference= Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part G: |journal= Journal of Aerospace Engineering |date= April 1, 2002 |volume= 216 |number= 4 |pages= 189-196 |url-access= subscription }}</ref> |
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==== Luminati Substrata ==== |
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An important goal of the [[CAPECON]] project, instigated by the European Union, was the development of HALE vehicles.<ref name=PolishAS2004/> |
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[[Luminati Aerospace]] claims its Substrata solar-powered aircraft could remain aloft indefinitely up to a latitude of 50° through [[formation flight]] like migratory [[geese]], reducing by 79% the power required for the trailing aircraft and allowing smaller [[airframe]]s.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.ainonline.com/aviation-news/aerospace/2018-08-02/luminati-perpetual-solar-powered-flight-possible |title= Luminati: Perpetual Solar-powered Flight Possible |author= Mark Huber |date= August 2, 2018 |work= AIN online}}</ref> |
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== |
==Design== |
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[[File:Nasa wind vs alt curves.JPG|thumb|Wind profile variation with altitude showing minimum wind speeds between 17 and 22 km altitude. (Although the absolute value of the wind speed will vary with altitude, the trends (shown in these figures) are similar for most locations.) Source: NASA]] |
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{{Main|Geostationary balloon satellite}} |
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[[File:Google Loon - Launch Event.jpg|thumb|A Google [[Project Loon]] balloon]] |
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An atmosat remains aloft through atmospheric lift, in contrast to a satellite in [[Earth orbit]] which moves freely at high speed in the vacuum of space, and orbits due to its centrifugal force matching the force of gravity. Satellites are expensive to build and launch, and any changes to their orbit requires expending their extremely limited fuel supply. Atmospheric satellites fly very slowly. They are intended to provide their various services more economically and with more versatility than current [[low Earth orbit]] satellites.<ref name=TechCrunch20140304/> |
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A '''geostationary balloon satellite''' (GBS) flies in the [[stratosphere]] ({{convert|60,000|to|70,000|ft|km}} above sea level) at a fixed point over the Earth's surface. At that altitude the air has 1/10 of its [[air density|density]] is at [[sea level]]. The average wind speed at these altitudes is less than that at the surface.{{citation needed|date=January 2017|reason=Is it?}} |
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Operating altitudes are expected to be in the [[tropopause]]—at approximately 65,000 feet—where winds are generally less than 5 knots and clouds do not block sunlight.<ref name=Fortune20130823>{{cite web|last=Dillow |first=Clay |title=The drone that may never have to land |url=http://fortune.com/2013/08/23/the-drone-that-may-never-have-to-land/ |work= Fortune (CNN) |date=August 23, 2013 }}</ref> It is desirable in the United States to operate above 60,000 feet, above which the Federal Aviation Administration does not regulate the airspace.<ref name=Fortune20130823/> |
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A GBS could be used to provide [[broadband Internet access]] over a large area.<ref>{{cite conference |title= A low cost alternative for satellites- tethered ultra-high altitude balloons |publisher= IEEE |url= https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5966806 |conference= Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Recent Advances in Space Technologies - RAST2011|date= June 2011|last1=Izet-Unsalan|first1=Kunsel|last2=Unsalan|first2=Deniz|pages=13–16 }}</ref> |
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One prior project was the [[Google]]'s [[Project Loon]], which envisioned using helium-filled [[high-altitude balloon]]s. |
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There are two classes of atmosat, respectively gaining their lift through either [[aerostat]]ic (e.g., [[balloon (aeronautics)|balloons]]) or [[lift (force)|aerodynamic]] (e.g., [[airplane]]s) forces. In order to remain aloft for long periods, the NASA and Titan Aerospace designs use propeller-driven [[electric airplane]]s powered by [[solar cell]]s, in contrast to [[Google]]'s [[Project Loon]] which envisions using helium-filled [[high-altitude balloon]]s.<ref name=TechCrunch20140304/> |
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==Applications== <!-- Let's keep it brief and specific to the atmosat CONCEPT — not UAVs in general and NOT too many details of specific atmosats that have their own articles --> |
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Proposed applications for atmosats include border security, maritime traffic monitoring, anti-piracy operations, disaster response, agricultural observation, atmospheric observation, weather monitoring, communications relay, oceanographic research, Earth imaging and telecommunications.<ref name=Fortune20130823/> Facebook is reportedly envisioning providing Internet access to the African continent with a fleet of 11,000 vehicles.<ref name=TechCrunch20140304/> |
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;Power |
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==High-altitude long endurance== |
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: A HAP can be a manned or unmanned [[airplane]], a [[balloon]], or an [[airship]]. All require electrical power to keep themselves and their payload functional. While current HAPS are powered by batteries or engines, mission time is limited by the need for recharging/refueling. Therefore, alternative means are being considered for the future. [[Solar cell]]s are one of the best options currently being used under trial for HAPS ([[NASA Helios|Helios]], Lindstrand HALE).<ref>{{cite web |url= https://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20110511231045if_/http%3A//www.ssd.rl.ac.uk/Appleton_Space_Conference/Pattinson.pdf |title= HALE Airship - Manufacture, Flight and Operation |author= John Pattinson, Lindstrand Technologies}}</ref> |
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'''High-altitude long endurance''' (HALE) is the description of an [[Airplane|air-borne vehicle]] which functions optimally at [[Altitude|high-altitude]] (as high as 60,000 feet)<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.defenseone.com/defense-systems/2015/05/future-of-unmanned-capabilities-male-vs-hale/191177/ |title=Future of unmanned capabilities: MALE vs HALE |first=Mark |last=Pomerleau |date=2015-05-27 |work= Defense One |publisher= [[Government Executive]]}}</ref> and is capable of flights which last for considerable periods of time without recourse to landing. The [[tropopause]] represents high-altitude.<ref>{{cite magazine |url= https://defense-update.com/20070220_auvsi07_5hale.html |title= HALE UAVs Come of Age |date= Feb 20, 2007 |magazine= [[Defense Update]]}}</ref> |
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; Altitude selection |
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===Craft=== |
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: Whether an airship or an aeroplane, a major challenge is the ability of the HAP to maintain stationkeeping in the face of winds. An operating altitude between 17 and 22 km is chosen because in most regions of the world this represents a layer of relatively mild wind and [[turbulence]] above the [[jet stream]]. Although the wind profile may vary considerably with latitude and with season, a form similar to that shown will usually obtain. This altitude (> 17 km) is also above commercial air-traffic heights, which would otherwise prove a potentially prohibitive constraint.<ref>{{cite journal |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/215650763_High-Altitude_Platforms_for_Wireless_Communications |title= High-altitude platforms for wireless communications |authors= T. C. Tozer and D. Grace, |journal= Electronics & Communication Engineering Journal |date= June 2001}}</ref> |
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; Lockheed-Martin HALE-D |
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: [[Lockheed-Martin]] have produced a HALE Demonstrator, which was the first of this type of craft. The HALE-D vehicle was launched during July the 27th 2011 to operate from a location which is higher than the [[jet-stream]] in a [[geostationary]] position. The HALE-D was to function as a [[surveillance]] platform, [[telecommunications]] relay, or a weather observer.<ref name=Lockheed27july2011>{{cite press release |url= https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2011-07-27-Lockheed-Martin-U-S-Army-Demonstrate-HALE-D-During-Abbreviated-Flight |title= Lockheed Martin, U.S. Army Demonstrate HALE-D During Abbreviated Flight |publisher= Lockheed Martin |date= July 27, 2011 }}</ref> |
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; Comparison to satellites |
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; Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk |
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: Since HAPS operate at much lower altitudes than satellites, it is possible to cover a small region much more effectively. Lower altitude also means much lower telecommunications [[link budget]] (hence lower power consumption) and smaller round-trip delay compared to satellites. Furthermore, deploying a satellite requires significant time and monetary resources, in terms of development and launch. HAPS, on the other hand, are comparatively less expensive and are rapidly deployable. Another major difference is that a satellite, once launched, cannot be landed for maintenance, while HAPS can.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Advantages of HAPS: (ii) Compared with Satellite Services |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061101044134/http://www.skylarc.com/HAPsmainpres2000/sld022.htm |date= 2001 |publisher= [[SkyLARC Technologies]]}}</ref> |
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: The [[Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk]] is an example of a HALE UAV. A total 42 of them have been in service with the [[United States Air Force]], beginning in 1998.<ref>{{Cite news |title= Northrop Grumman Unmanned Aircraft Systems Achieve 100,000 Flight Hours |url=https://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/northrop-grumman-unmanned-aircraft-systems-achieve-100000-flight-hours-l-photos/ |date= Sep 13, 2013 |website= Defense Media Network |publisher= Faircount Media Group}}</ref> It carries high-fidelity [[radar]], [[Electro-optical targeting system|electro-optical]], and [[infrared]] sensors, enabling it to surveil as much as 40,000 square miles (100,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of terrain a day. |
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{{further|topic=Satellites|Satellite}} |
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==Applications== |
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; Bayraktar Akıncı |
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Proposed applications for atmosats include border security, maritime traffic monitoring, anti-piracy operations, disaster response, agricultural observation, atmospheric observation, weather monitoring, communications relay, oceanographic research, Earth imaging and telecommunications.<ref name=Fortune20130823/> Facebook is reportedly envisioning providing Internet access to the African continent with a fleet of 11,000 vehicles.<ref name=TechCrunch20140304/> |
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: The [[Bayraktar Akıncı]] was produced as a HALE class {{citation needed|date=January 2021}} UAV and is set to go into service in 2021 or late 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.ainonline.com/aviation-news/defense/2019-12-11/turkeys-new-raider-takes-air |title=Turkey's New Raider Takes to the Air |first=Jon |last=Lake |date=December 11, 2019 |work= AIN online}}</ref> |
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; Telecommunications |
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; Scaled Composites Proteus |
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: One of the latest uses of HAPS has been for [[radiocommunication service]]. Research on HAPS is being actively carried largely in Europe, where scientists are considering them as a platform to deliver high-speed connectivity to users, over {{clarify span|areas of up to 400 km|in diameter?|date=August 2016}}. It has gained significant interest because HAPS will be able to deliver bandwidth and capacity similar to a [[broadband]] wireless access network (such as [[WiMAX]]) while providing a coverage area similar to that of a satellite. High-altitude airships can improve the military's ability to communicate in remote areas such as those in Afghanistan, where mountainous terrain frequently interferes with communications signals.<ref name=LM-HAA>{{cite web |title= High Altitude Airship |publisher= [[Lockheed Martin]] |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130126194933/http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/products/lighter-than-air-vehicles/haa.html}}</ref>{{copyvio-inline}} |
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: The [[Scaled Composites Proteus]] operates at altitudes of 19.8 km (65,000 ft), while carrying a 1,100 kg weight, with an endurance time of 18 hours maximum.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-069-DFRC.html |title= Fact Sheet: Proteus High-Altitude Aircraft |publisher= [[NASA]] Armstrong |orig-date= February 28, 2014 |date= Aug 7, 2017 |editor= Yvonne Gibbs }}</ref> |
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; Surveillance and intelligence |
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; General Atomics ALTUS |
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: One of the best examples of a high-altitude platform used for surveillance and security is [[Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk]] UAV used by the [[US Air Force]]. It has a service ceiling of 20 km and can stay in the air for continuous 36 hours. It carries a highly sophisticated sensor system including radar, optical, and infrared imagers. It is powered by a [[turbofan]] engine and is able to deliver digital sensor data in realtime to a ground station.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://fas.org/irp/program/collect/global_hawk.htm |title= RQ-4A Global Hawk (Tier II+ HAE UAV) |publisher= Federation of American Scientists |authors= John Pike, Steven Aftergood}}</ref> |
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: The [[General Atomics ALTUS]] II, ([[Latin]]: ''[[Wikt:Altus|Altus]]'' meaning ''high'') runs at altitudes of 18.3 km (60,000 ft), with endurance times of 24 hours approximately, with variations of capabilities of endurance dependent on the altitude of operation.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-058-DFRC.html |title= Factsheet |publisher= [[NASA]] |orig-date= February 28, 2014 |date= July 31, 2015 |editor= Yvonne Gibbs }}</ref> |
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; Real-time monitoring |
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; Boeing Phantom Eye |
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: Another future use that is currently being investigated is monitoring of a particular area or region for activities such as flood detection, [[seismic]] monitoring, [[remote sensing]] and disaster management.<ref>{{cite conference |url= https://a-a-r-s.org/proceeding/ACRS1990/Papers/MSP90-2.htm |title= The airborne Remote Sensing technical system of the Chinese Academy of Sciences |author= Tong Qingxi |work= The Joint Center for Remote Sensing of [[Chinese Academy of Sciences|CAS China]] |conference= Asian Association on Remote Sensing (AARS) Asian Conference on Remote Sensing (ACRS) |year= 1990}}</ref> |
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: The [[Boeing Phantom Eye]] is able to maintain flight at altitude for four days with a payload;<ref>{{cite web |author= J. Meister |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151222144534/http://www.pddnet.com/news/2015/05/boeing-phantom-works-eyes-laser-toting-uavs |title= Boeing Phantom Works Eyes Laser-Toting UAVS |publisher= [[Advantage Business Media]] |work= Product Design and Development |date= May 27, 2015 }}</ref> a design variant is able to maintain flight at altitude for ten days, while carrying a payload.<ref>{{cite web |publisher= Boeing |url= https://www.boeing.com/defense/phantom-eye/ |title= phantom eye}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first=G. |last=Jennings |title=Paris Air Show 2015: Boeing sees future operational opportunities for Phantom Eye UAV |publisher=IHS Jane's Defence Weekly |date=June 15, 2015 |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151222122410/http://www.janes.com/article/52222/paris-air-show-2015-boeing-sees-future-operational-opportunities-for-phantom-eye-uav }}</ref> |
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; Weather and environmental monitoring |
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; HALE PW-114 |
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: Perhaps the most common use of high-altitude platforms is for environment/weather monitoring. Numerous experiments are conducted through high-altitude balloons mounted with scientific equipment, which is used to measure environmental changes or to keep track of weather. Recently, [[NASA]] in partnership with The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ([[NOAA]]), has started using Global Hawk UAV to study Earth's atmosphere.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.space.com/6329-nasa-recruits-unmanned-aircraft-earth-science.html |title= NASA Recruits Unmanned Aircraft for Earth Science |work= [[Space.com]] |date= January 17, 2009}}</ref> |
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: The HALE PW-114 is a concept craft by the [[Polish Academy of Sciences]] equipped with sensors to fly at a height of 20 kilometres for a duration of 40 hours.<ref name=PolishAS2004>{{cite book |url=http://bulletin.pan.pl/(52-3)173.pdf |author1=Z. Goraj |display-authors= etal |title= High altitude long endurance unmanned aerial vehicle of a new generation – a design challenge for a low cost, reliable and high performance aircraft |work=Bulletin of the [[Polish Academy of Sciences]], Technical Sciences |volume= 52 |number= 3 |year= 2004}}</ref> |
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; rocket launch platform |
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; Lockheed Martin RQ-3 DarkStar |
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: Due to the height, more than 90% of atmospheric matter is below the high-altitude platform. This reduces atmospheric drag for starting rockets. |
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: The [[Lockheed Martin RQ-3 DarkStar]] is a high-[[Stealth aircraft|stealth oriented craft]] built to function optimally within highly defended areas, in order to do reconnaissance. The craft is intended to hover over targets for at least eight hours, at heights of 13.7 km (45,000 ft) and beyond.<ref name=PolishAS2004/><ref>{{cite web |url= https://irp.fas.org/program/collect/darkstar.htm|title= RQ-3A DarkStar Tier III Minus |authors= John Pike, Steven Aftergood |date= November 28, 1999 |work= Intelligence Resource program |publisher= [[Federation of American Scientists]]}}</ref> |
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"As a rough estimate, a rocket that reaches an altitude of 20 km when launched from the ground will reach 100 km if launched at an altitude of 20 km from a balloon."<ref>{{cite book|author=Nobuyuki Yajima |display-authors=etal |date=2004|title=Scientific ballooning : technology and applications of exploration balloons floating in the stratosphere and the atmospheres of other planets |url= https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-09727-5 |url-access=limited |isbn= 978-0-387-09725-1 |publisher= Springer |page= 162 |chapter= 3.7.2.3 Launching Rockets from Ballons (Rockoons)}}</ref> |
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Such a platform has been proposed to allow the usage of (long) [[mass driver]]s for launching goods or humans into orbit.<ref>{{cite book |author= Gerard K. O'Neill |date=1981 |title= 2081: a hopeful view of the human future |isbn=9780671242572 |url= https://archive.org/details/2081hopefulviewo00onei |url-access= registration}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2023}} |
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{{further|Rockoon}} |
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==Airplanes== |
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; Airbus Zephyr |
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[[File:Pathfinder Plus solar aircraft over Hawaii.jpg|thumb|[[NASA Pathfinder|NASA Pathfinder Plus]]]] |
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: The [[Airbus Zephyr]] was designed to fly at a maximum height of altitude 21.3 km (70 000 ft), and in a 2006 flight, it was airborne for 80 hours, which was then was the longest flight made by a HALE vehicle.<ref>{{cite web |author= A. Rapinett |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140401110920if_/http://personal.ph.surrey.ac.uk/~phs1pr/mphys-dissertations/2009/Rapinett-MPhys09.pdf |title= Zephyr: A High Altitude Long Endurance Unmanned Air Vehicle |date= April 2009 |publisher= Department of Physics - [[University of Surrey]]}}</ref> Model 7 holds the official long-endurance record for an UAV of 336 hours, 22 minutes and 8 seconds, a flight made from the 9th to the 23rd of July 2010.<ref name="BBC20100723">{{Cite news |last= Amos |first= Jonathan |title= 'Eternal plane' returns to Earth |work= BBC News | date = 2010-07-23 | url =https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-10733998}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.fai.org/record/16052 |title=FAI Record ID No. 16052 |quote= Absolute Record of class U (Experimental / New Technologies) for Duration |publisher=[[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale|FAI]] }}</ref> |
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[[File:Helios checkout flight (kauai).ogg|thumb|video of helios in flight]] |
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[[File:Centurion-EC98-44822-5.jpg|thumb|[[NASA Centurion]]]] |
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To enable night time operation and ensure endurance through consecutive 24-hour day/night cycles, in daylight hours solar panels charge batteries<ref name=Fortune20130823/> or fuel cells<ref name=NASAheliosFact/> which subsequently power the vehicle during hours of darkness. An atmospheric satellite may initially ascend at night under battery power, and reach altitude soon after dawn to allow solar panels to take advantage of a full day's sunlight.<ref name=TechCrunch20140304>{{cite news|last1=Perez |first1=Sarah |last2=Constine |first2=Josh |title=Facebook In Talks To Acquire Drone Maker Titan Aerospace |url=http://techcrunch.com/2014/03/03/facebook-in-talks-to-acquire-drone-maker-titan-aerospace/ |work=TechCrunch |date=March 4, 2014 }}</ref> |
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; Boeing A160 Hummingbird |
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: [[A160 Hummingbird]] is a rotorcraft produced by Boeing.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://verticalmag.com/press-releases/fdc-aerofilter-selected-by-boeing-phantom-works-for-the-a160-hummingbird-html/ |title= FDC/aerofilter selected by Boeing Phantom Works for the A160 Hummingbird |
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|author= FDC/aerofilter |via= Vertical magazine, MHM publishing |date= October 28, 2005}}</ref> |
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===Operational=== |
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; Guizhou WZ-7 Soaring Dragon |
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; Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk<!--in service since 1998--> |
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: The [[Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk]] is an example of a HALE UAV. A total 42 of them have been in service with the [[United States Air Force]], beginning in 1998.<ref>{{Cite news |title= Northrop Grumman Unmanned Aircraft Systems Achieve 100,000 Flight Hours |url=https://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/northrop-grumman-unmanned-aircraft-systems-achieve-100000-flight-hours-l-photos/ |date= Sep 13, 2013 |website= Defense Media Network |publisher= Faircount Media Group}}</ref> It carries high-fidelity [[radar]], [[Electro-optical targeting system|electro-optical]], and [[infrared]] sensors, enabling it to surveil as much as 40,000 square miles (100,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of terrain a day. |
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; Guizhou WZ-7 Soaring Dragon<!--Introduction 2018--> |
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: The [[Guizhou WZ-7 Soaring Dragon]], produced by [[Guizhou Aircraft Industry Corporation]], is a HALE UAV used for military reconnaissance, with a service ceiling of 18 km and range of 7,000 km. |
: The [[Guizhou WZ-7 Soaring Dragon]], produced by [[Guizhou Aircraft Industry Corporation]], is a HALE UAV used for military reconnaissance, with a service ceiling of 18 km and range of 7,000 km. |
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; Bayraktar Akıncı<!--entered service on 29 August 2021--> |
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; Shenyang Aircraft Corporation Divine Eagle |
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: The [[Bayraktar Akıncı]] was produced as a HALE class {{citation needed|date=January 2021}} UAV and is set to go into service in 2021 or late 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.ainonline.com/aviation-news/defense/2019-12-11/turkeys-new-raider-takes-air |title=Turkey's New Raider Takes to the Air |first=Jon |last=Lake |date=December 11, 2019 |work= AIN online}}</ref> |
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: The Divine Eagle, produced by [[Shenyang Aircraft Corporation]], is a large HALE UAV with an extremely large wingspan, and designed for cruising at very high altitude. It is a [[twin-boom aircraft]]. It is speculated to carry a series of airborne early warning radars of the [[active electronically scanned array]] type, and notably with some anti-stealth capability. During its development, it was designated an "anti stealth UAV". It is one of a series of [[SYAC UAV]]. |
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===Prototypes=== |
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; Swift Engineering SULE |
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: The [[Swift Engineering]]'s Swift Ultra Long Endurance [[SULE]] completed its maiden flight partnership with [[NASA]]'s Ames Research Center in July 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.militaryaerospace.com/commercial-aerospace/article/14231559/swift-highaltitudelongendurance-uas-completes-first-flight |title=Swift High-Altitude-Long-Endurance UAS completes first flight |date= July 23, 2020 |work= Military & Aerospace Electronics |publisher= [[Endeavor Business Media]] }}</ref> |
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; NASA ERAST Program<!--Pathfinder first flew in June 1983--> |
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==High-altitude platform station== |
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: The initial goals under the NASA's [[NASA ERAST Program|Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology (ERAST)]] project were to demonstrate sustained flight at an altitude near 100,000 feet and flying non-stop for at least 24 hours, including at least 14 hours above 50,000 feet.<ref name=NASAheliosFact>{{cite web |title= NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: Helios Prototype |url= https://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/FactSheets/FS-068-DFRC.html |publisher=NASA |date=February 28, 2014 }}</ref> The early development path of atmospheric satellites included the [[NASA Pathfinder]] (exceeding 50,000 feet in 1995), the [[NASA Pathfinder#Pathfinder-Plus|Pathfinder Plus]] (80,000 feet in 1998), and the [[NASA Centurion]] which was modified into a prototype configuration for the [[NASA Helios]] (96,000 feet in 2001).<ref name=NASAheliosFact/> An Airbus/[[Qinetiq Zephyr]] flew for 14 days in the summer of 2010, and in 2014 a Zephyr 7 stayed up for 11 days in the short days of winter whilst carrying a small payload for the British Ministry of Defence.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/transport/11064789/Fly-11-days-non-stop-Now-thats-long-haul.html |newspaper= [[Daily Telegraph]] |title= Fly 11 days non-stop? Now that's long-haul |first= Alan |last= Tovey |date= 31 August 2014}}</ref> |
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[[File:Stratobus artiste.jpg|thumb|Stratobus airship]] |
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[[File:Geostationary balloon satellite.jpeg|thumb|[[High-altitude balloon#Geostationary balloon satellite|Geostationary balloon satellite]]]] |
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[[File:Skynet blimp.jpg|thumb|[[Geostationary satellite|Geostationary]] [[Airship Industries|airship]] satellite]] |
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; Lockheed Martin RQ-3 DarkStar<!--First flight March 29, 1996--> |
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An '''High-altitude platform station (HAPS)''' is defined by the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) as "''a [[radio station|station]] on an object at an altitude of 20 to 50 km and at a specified, nominal, fixed point relative to the Earth''" in its [[ITU Radio Regulations]] (RR).<ref>{{cite book |url= https://life.itu.int/radioclub/rr/art1.pdf |work= [[ITU Radio Regulations]] |chapter= IV. Radio Stations and Systems |title= Article 1.66A, definition: ''high altitude platform station''}}</ref> HAPS can also be the abbreviation for '''high-altitude pseudo-satellite'''. |
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: The [[Lockheed Martin RQ-3 DarkStar]] is a high-[[Stealth aircraft|stealth oriented craft]] built to function optimally within highly defended areas, in order to do reconnaissance. The craft is intended to hover over targets for at least eight hours, at heights of 13.7 km (45,000 ft) and beyond.<ref name=PolishAS2004/><ref>{{cite web |url= https://irp.fas.org/program/collect/darkstar.htm|title= RQ-3A DarkStar Tier III Minus |authors= John Pike, Steven Aftergood |date= November 28, 1999 |work= Intelligence Resource program |publisher= [[Federation of American Scientists]]}}</ref> |
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; General Atomics ALTUS II<!--first flight on May 1, 1996--> |
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{{see also|Radio station|Radiocommunication service|Airship}} |
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: The [[General Atomics ALTUS]] II, ([[Latin]]: ''[[Wikt:Altus|Altus]]'' meaning ''high'') runs at altitudes of 18.3 km (60,000 ft), with endurance times of 24 hours approximately, with variations of capabilities of endurance dependent on the altitude of operation.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-058-DFRC.html |title= Factsheet |publisher= [[NASA]] |orig-date= February 28, 2014 |date= July 31, 2015 |editor= Yvonne Gibbs }}</ref> |
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; Scaled Composites Proteus<!--first flight on July 26, 1998--> |
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===Design considerations=== |
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: The [[Scaled Composites Proteus]] operates at altitudes of 19.8 km (65,000 ft), while carrying a 1,100 kg weight, with an endurance time of 18 hours maximum.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-069-DFRC.html |title= Fact Sheet: Proteus High-Altitude Aircraft |publisher= [[NASA]] Armstrong |orig-date= February 28, 2014 |date= Aug 7, 2017 |editor= Yvonne Gibbs }}</ref> |
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; Airbus Zephyr<!--First flight December 2005--> |
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====Limitation due to power==== |
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: The [[Airbus Zephyr]] was designed to fly at a maximum height of altitude 21.3 km (70 000 ft), and in a 2006 flight, it was airborne for 80 hours, which was then was the longest flight made by a HALE vehicle.<ref>{{cite web |author= A. Rapinett |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140401110920if_/http://personal.ph.surrey.ac.uk/~phs1pr/mphys-dissertations/2009/Rapinett-MPhys09.pdf |title= Zephyr: A High Altitude Long Endurance Unmanned Air Vehicle |date= April 2009 |publisher= Department of Physics - [[University of Surrey]]}}</ref> Model 7 holds the official long-endurance record for an UAV of 336 hours, 22 minutes and 8 seconds, a flight made from the 9th to the 23rd of July 2010.<ref name="BBC20100723">{{Cite news |last= Amos |first= Jonathan |title= 'Eternal plane' returns to Earth |work= BBC News | date = 2010-07-23 | url =https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-10733998}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.fai.org/record/16052 |title=FAI Record ID No. 16052 |quote= Absolute Record of class U (Experimental / New Technologies) for Duration |publisher=[[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale|FAI]] }}</ref> |
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A HAP can be a manned or unmanned [[airplane]], a [[balloon]], or an [[airship]]. All require electrical power to keep themselves and their payload functional. While current HAPS are powered by batteries or engines, mission time is limited by the need for recharging/refueling. Therefore, alternative means are being considered for the future. [[Solar cell]]s are one of the best options currently being used under trial for HAPS ([[NASA Helios|Helios]], Lindstrand HALE).<ref>{{cite web |url= https://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20110511231045if_/http%3A//www.ssd.rl.ac.uk/Appleton_Space_Conference/Pattinson.pdf |title= HALE Airship - Manufacture, Flight and Operation |author= John Pattinson, Lindstrand Technologies}}</ref> |
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; Boeing Phantom Eye<!--First flight June 1, 2012--> |
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====Altitude selection for HAPS==== |
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: The [[Boeing Phantom Eye]] is able to maintain flight at altitude for four days with a payload;<ref>{{cite web |author= J. Meister |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151222144534/http://www.pddnet.com/news/2015/05/boeing-phantom-works-eyes-laser-toting-uavs |title= Boeing Phantom Works Eyes Laser-Toting UAVS |publisher= [[Advantage Business Media]] |work= Product Design and Development |date= May 27, 2015 }}</ref> a design variant is able to maintain flight at altitude for ten days, while carrying a payload.<ref>{{cite web |publisher= Boeing |url= https://www.boeing.com/defense/phantom-eye/ |title= phantom eye}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first=G. |last=Jennings |title=Paris Air Show 2015: Boeing sees future operational opportunities for Phantom Eye UAV |publisher=IHS Jane's Defence Weekly |date=June 15, 2015 |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151222122410/http://www.janes.com/article/52222/paris-air-show-2015-boeing-sees-future-operational-opportunities-for-phantom-eye-uav }}</ref> |
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[[File:Nasa wind vs alt curves.JPG|thumb|Wind profile variation with altitude showing minimum wind speeds between 17 and 22 km altitude. (Although the absolute value of the wind speed will vary with altitude, the trends (shown in these figures) are similar for most locations.) Source: NASA]] |
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Whether an airship or an aeroplane, a major challenge is the ability of the HAP to maintain stationkeeping in the face of winds. An operating altitude between 17 and 22 km is chosen because in most regions of the world this represents a layer of relatively mild wind and [[turbulence]] above the [[jet stream]]. Although the wind profile may vary considerably with latitude and with season, a form similar to that shown will usually obtain. This altitude (> 17 km) is also above commercial air-traffic heights, which would otherwise prove a potentially prohibitive constraint.<ref>{{cite journal |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/215650763_High-Altitude_Platforms_for_Wireless_Communications |title= High-altitude platforms for wireless communications |authors= T. C. Tozer and D. Grace, |journal= Electronics & Communication Engineering Journal |date= June 2001}}</ref> |
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; Shenyang Aircraft Corporation Divine Eagle<!--first flight in December 2014 or early 2015, maybe operational--> |
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===Comparison to satellites=== |
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: The [[SYAC UAV#Divine Eagle|Divine Eagle]], produced by [[Shenyang Aircraft Corporation]], is a large HALE UAV with an extremely large wingspan, and designed for cruising at very high altitude. It is a [[twin-boom aircraft]]. It is speculated to carry a series of airborne early warning radars of the [[active electronically scanned array]] type, and notably with some anti-stealth capability. During its development, it was designated an "anti stealth UAV". It is one of a series of [[SYAC UAV]]. |
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{{further|topic=Satellites|Satellite}} |
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Since HAPS operate at much lower altitudes than satellites, it is possible to cover a small region much more effectively. Lower altitude also means much lower telecommunications [[link budget]] (hence lower power consumption) and smaller round-trip delay compared to satellites. Furthermore, deploying a satellite requires significant time and monetary resources, in terms of development and launch. HAPS, on the other hand, are comparatively less expensive and are rapidly deployable. Another major difference is that a satellite, once launched, cannot be landed for maintenance, while HAPS can.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Advantages of HAPS: (ii) Compared with Satellite Services |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061101044134/http://www.skylarc.com/HAPsmainpres2000/sld022.htm |date= 2001 |publisher= [[SkyLARC Technologies]]}}</ref> |
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; Astigan A3<!--full-scale flights in 2016--> |
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===Applications=== |
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: UK mapping agency [[Ordnance Survey]] (OS), a subsidiary of the [[Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy]], is developing the A3, a 38 m (125 ft) wingspan, 149 kg (330 lb) twin-boom solar-powered HAPS designed to stay aloft at {{cvt|67,000|ft}} for 90 days carrying a {{cvt|25|kg}} payload.<!--ref name=AvWeek18feb2019--> OS owns 51% of UK company [[Astigan]], led by [[Brian Jones (aeronaut)|Brian Jones]], developing the A3 since 2014 with scale model test flights in 2015 and full-scale low-altitude flights in 2016.<!--ref name=AvWeek18feb2019--> High-altitude flights should begin in 2019, to complete tests in 2020 with a commercial introduction as for [[environmental monitoring]], [[cartography|mapping]], communications and security.<ref name=AvWeek18feb2019>{{cite news |url= http://aviationweek.com/future-aerospace/week-technology-feb-18-22-2019 |title= The Week In Technology, Feb. 18-22, 2019 |date= Feb 18, 2019 |author= Tony Osborne |work= Aviation Week & Space Technology}}</ref> |
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; Facebook Aquila<!--first flight on June 28, 2016--> |
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====Telecommunications==== |
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: [[Facebook]]'s UAV-based [[Facebook Aquila|Aquila system]] expects to use [[Free-space optical communication|laser communication]] technology to provide Internet communication among UAVs, and also between UAVs and ground stations that in turn will connect to rural areas.<ref name=IEEEspectrum20160413/> The Aquila UAV is a carbon fiber, solar-powered [[flying wing]] design about the size of a passenger jet.<ref name=IEEEspectrum20160413>{{cite news |last1=Perry |first1=Tekla S. |title=Facebook's Aquila Drone Creates a Laser-net In the Sky |url= https://spectrum.ieee.org/facebooks-aquila-drone-creates-a-lasernet-in-the-sky |website=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|IEEE]] Spectrum |date=April 13, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Gershgorn |first1=Dave |title=Facebook's Enormous Internet Drone is Almost Ready for Primetime |url= https://www.popsci.com/facebooks-full-scale-internet-drone-is-almost-ready-for-primetime/ |magazine=Popular Science |date=February 23, 2016 }}</ref><ref name=wired21july2016>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2016/07/facebooks-giant-internet-beaming-drone-finally-takes-flight/|title=Facebook's Giant Internet-Beaming Drone Finally Takes Flight|last=Metz|first=Cade|date=21 July 2016|magazine=Wired}}</ref> Aquila's first test flight took place on June 28, 2016.<ref name=wired21july2016 /> It flew for ninety minutes, reaching a maximum altitude of 2150 feet,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/12/20/14029580/facebook-aquila-drone-crash-aviation-experts-criticism|title=Facebook's drone test flight ended with part of the wing snapping off|last=Newton|first=Casey|date=2016-12-16|website=The Verge}}</ref> and was substantially damaged when a twenty-foot section of the righthand wing broke off during final approach to landing.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://data.ntsb.gov/Docket/?NTSBNumber=DCA16CA197 |title= Aviation Investigation - DCA16CA197 |publisher= NTSB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= https://engineering.fb.com/2016/12/16/connectivity/reviewing-aquila-s-first-full-scale-test-flight/ |title=Reviewing Aquila's first full-scale test flight|work= Engineering at Meta|date=16 December 2016}}</ref> The Aquila is designed and manufactured by the UK company Ascenta.<ref>{{cite news |author= Rory Cellan-Jones |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-36855168 |title= Facebook's drones - made in Britain |publisher= BBC |date= 21 July 2016}}</ref> |
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One of the latest uses of HAPS has been for [[radiocommunication service]]. Research on HAPS is being actively carried largely in Europe, where scientists are considering them as a platform to deliver high-speed connectivity to users, over {{clarify span|areas of up to 400 km|in diameter?|date=August 2016}}. It has gained significant interest because HAPS will be able to deliver bandwidth and capacity similar to a [[broadband]] wireless access network (such as [[WiMAX]]) while providing a coverage area similar to that of a satellite. |
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In January 2018, several systems were in development:<ref>{{cite news |url= http://aviationweek.com/leading-edge/aerovironments-stratospheric-satellites-persistence-pays |title= AeroVironment's Stratospheric Satellites Persistence Pays Off |date= Jan 12, 2018 |author= Graham Warwick |magazine= Aviation Week & Space Technology}}</ref> |
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High-altitude airships can improve the military's ability to communicate in remote areas such as those in Afghanistan, where mountainous terrain frequently interferes with communications signals.<ref name=LM-HAA>{{cite web |title= High Altitude Airship |publisher= [[Lockheed Martin]] |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130126194933/http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/products/lighter-than-air-vehicles/haa.html}}</ref>{{copyvio-inline}} |
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* [[AeroVironment]] will design and development solar-powered UAV prototypes for $65 million for HAPSMobile, a joint venture 95% funded and owned by Japanese telco [[SoftBank]]; its {{cvt|247|ft}}-span [[Helios Prototype]] first flew in 1999 and reached {{cvt|96,863|ft}} in 2001 before breaking up in flight in 2003; in 2002, its {{cvt|121|ft}}-span [[NASA Pathfinder|Pathfinder Plus]] carried a communications payload to FL650; its hydrogen-powered [[Global Observer]] designed to stay aloft a week in the stratosphere first flew in 2010 but crashed in 2011. |
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* [[Airbus]] builds the [[Airbus Zephyr|Zephyr]], spanning {{cvt|80|ft}} and weighing less than {{cvt|100|lb}}, it is designed to stay aloft for months; a 2010 version flew for 14 days, while in July 2018, a Zephyr flew continuously for 25 days, 23 hours, and 57 minutes;<ref>{{cite news |author= Mark Schauer ([[United States Army Test and Evaluation Command|ATEC]]) |url= https://www.army.mil/article/217347/unmanned_aircraft_stays_aloft_for_nearly_26_days_above_us_army_yuma_proving_ground |date= February 12, 2019 |title= Unmanned aircraft stays aloft for nearly 26 days above U.S. Army Yuma Proving Ground |publisher= U.S. Army}}</ref> |
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* [[Facebook]] worked on developing the [[Facebook Aquila|Aquila]] solar-powered high-altitude flying-wing UAV to provide internet connectivity, spanning {{cvt|132|ft}} and weighing {{cvt|935|lb}}. It made two low-altitude test flights in 2016 and 2017 and is designed to stay aloft at FL650 for 90 days. On June 27, 2018, Facebook announced it will halt the project and plan to have other companies build the drones.<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://engineering.fb.com/2018/06/27/connectivity/high-altitude-connectivity-the-next-chapter/ |title= High altitude connectivity: The next chapter |date=2018-06-27 |first=Yael |last=Maguire |work= Engineering at Meta}}</ref> |
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* [[Thales Alenia Space]] develops the Stratobus unmanned, solar-powered stratospheric [[airship]], {{cvt|377|ft}} long and weighting {{cvt|15,000|lb}} including a {{cvt|550|lb}} payload, it is designed for a five-year mission with annual servicing and a prototype is planned for late 2020 |
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* [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation]] flew a {{cvt|147|ft}}-span solar-powered UAV to FL650 in a 15 hours test flight in July 2017 |
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* Russia's [[Lavochkin]] design bureau is flight-testing the LA-252, an {{cvt|82|ft}}-span, {{cvt|255|lb}} solar-powered UAV designed to stay aloft 100 days in the stratosphere. |
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*[[H-Aero]] LTA-based launch systems for Mars exploration,<ref>{{Cite journal |url= https://arxiv.org/pdf/1304.5098.pdf |title= Ultralight Solar Powered Hybrid Research Drone |author= Singer, Cs |journal= Concepts and Approaches for Mars Exploration |date= June 2012}}</ref> with development taking place via terrestrial high-altitude platforms. The first systems are currently being tested.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bnn.de/mittelbaden/baden-baden/flugzeug-hubschrauber-und-luftschiff-in-einem-baden-badener-konstrukteur-entwickelt-neues-fluggeraet |title = Flugzeug, Hubschrauber und Luftschiff in einem: Baden-Badener Konstrukteur entwickelt neues Fluggerät |date = 11 February 2021|work= [[Badische Neueste Nachrichten]] |lang= de}}</ref>{{better ref needed|reason=an english ref would be more appropriate in the english wikipedia|date=February 2023}} |
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; BAE Systems PHASA-35<!--maiden flight in February 2020--> |
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====Surveillance and intelligence==== |
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: Designed by Prismatic Ltd., now [[BAE Systems]], the 35 m (115 ft)-wingspan [[BAE Systems PHASA-35]] made its [[maiden flight]] in February 2020 from the [[Woomera Test Range]] in South Australia; it should fly its {{cvt|15|kg}} payload at around 70,000 ft for days or weeks.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.flightglobal.com/aerospace/bae-joins-high-altitude-race-with-maiden-phasa-35-flight/136767.article |title= BAE joins high-altitude race with maiden PHASA-35 flight |author= Dan Thisdell |date= 17 February 2020 |work= Flightglobal}}</ref> |
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One of the best examples of a high-altitude platform used for surveillance and security is [[Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk]] UAV used by the [[US Air Force]]. It has a service ceiling of 20 km and can stay in the air for continuous 36 hours. It carries a highly sophisticated sensor system including radar, optical, and infrared imagers. It is powered by a [[turbofan]] engine and is able to deliver digital sensor data in realtime to a ground station.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://fas.org/irp/program/collect/global_hawk.htm |title= RQ-4A Global Hawk (Tier II+ HAE UAV) |publisher= Federation of American Scientists |authors= John Pike, Steven Aftergood}}</ref> |
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; Swift Engineering SULE<!--first flight July 20, 2020--> |
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====Real-time monitoring of a region==== |
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: The [[Swift Engineering]]'s Swift Ultra Long Endurance [[SULE]] completed its maiden flight partnership with [[NASA]]'s Ames Research Center in July 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.militaryaerospace.com/commercial-aerospace/article/14231559/swift-highaltitudelongendurance-uas-completes-first-flight |title=Swift High-Altitude-Long-Endurance UAS completes first flight |date= July 23, 2020 |work= Military & Aerospace Electronics |publisher= [[Endeavor Business Media]] }}</ref> |
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Another future use that is currently being investigated is monitoring of a particular area or region for activities such as flood detection, [[seismic]] monitoring, [[remote sensing]] and disaster management.<ref>{{cite conference |url= https://a-a-r-s.org/proceeding/ACRS1990/Papers/MSP90-2.htm |title= The airborne Remote Sensing technical system of the Chinese Academy of Sciences |author= Tong Qingxi |work= The Joint Center for Remote Sensing of [[Chinese Academy of Sciences|CAS China]] |conference= Asian Association on Remote Sensing (AARS) Asian Conference on Remote Sensing (ACRS) |year= 1990}}</ref> |
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===Concepts=== |
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====Weather and environmental monitoring==== |
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; HALE PW-114 |
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Perhaps the most common use of high-altitude platforms is for environment/weather monitoring. Numerous experiments are conducted through high-altitude balloons mounted with scientific equipment, which is used to measure environmental changes or to keep track of weather. Recently, [[NASA]] in partnership with The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ([[NOAA]]), has started using Global Hawk UAV to study Earth's atmosphere.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.space.com/6329-nasa-recruits-unmanned-aircraft-earth-science.html |title= NASA Recruits Unmanned Aircraft for Earth Science |work= [[Space.com]] |date= January 17, 2009}}</ref> |
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: The HALE PW-114 is a concept craft by the [[Polish Academy of Sciences]] equipped with sensors to fly at a height of 20 kilometres for a duration of 40 hours.<ref name=PolishAS2004>{{cite book |url=http://bulletin.pan.pl/(52-3)173.pdf |author1=Z. Goraj |display-authors= etal |title= High altitude long endurance unmanned aerial vehicle of a new generation – a design challenge for a low cost, reliable and high performance aircraft |work=Bulletin of the [[Polish Academy of Sciences]], Technical Sciences |volume= 52 |number= 3 |year= 2004}}</ref> |
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; Luminati Substrata |
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====As a rocket launch platform==== |
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: [[Luminati Aerospace]] claims its Substrata solar-powered aircraft could remain aloft indefinitely up to a latitude of 50° through [[formation flight]] like migratory [[geese]], reducing by 79% the power required for the trailing aircraft and allowing smaller [[airframe]]s.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.ainonline.com/aviation-news/aerospace/2018-08-02/luminati-perpetual-solar-powered-flight-possible |title= Luminati: Perpetual Solar-powered Flight Possible |author= Mark Huber |date= August 2, 2018 |work= AIN online}}</ref> |
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{{further|Rockoon}} |
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Due to the height, more than 90% of atmospheric matter is below the high-altitude platform. This reduces atmospheric drag for starting rockets. |
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"As a rough estimate, a rocket that reaches an altitude of 20 km when launched from the ground will reach 100 km if launched at an altitude of 20 km from a balloon."<ref>{{cite book|author=Nobuyuki Yajima |display-authors=etal |date=2004|title=Scientific ballooning : technology and applications of exploration balloons floating in the stratosphere and the atmospheres of other planets |url= https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-09727-5 |url-access=limited |isbn= 978-0-387-09725-1 |publisher= Springer |page= 162 |chapter= 3.7.2.3 Launching Rockets from Ballons (Rockoons)}}</ref> |
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Such a platform has been proposed to allow the usage of (long) [[mass driver]]s for launching goods or humans into orbit.<ref>{{cite book |author= Gerard K. O'Neill |date=1981 |title= 2081: a hopeful view of the human future |isbn=9780671242572 |url= https://archive.org/details/2081hopefulviewo00onei |url-access= registration}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2023}} |
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==Airships== |
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===Lockheed-Martin High-Altitude Airship (HAA)=== |
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[[File:Stratobus artiste.jpg|thumb|Stratobus airship]] |
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The [[United States Department of Defense]] [[Missile Defense Agency]] contracted [[Lockheed Martin]] to construct a '''High-Altitude Airship''' (HAA) to enhance its [[Ballistic Missile Defense System]] (BMDS).<ref>{{cite web |title=High Altitude Airship (HAA) |publisher=[[Lockheed Martin]] |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101114211650/http://www.lockheedmartin.com/products/HighAltitudeAirship/index.html }}</ref> |
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[[File:Skynet blimp.jpg|thumb|[[Geostationary satellite|Geostationary]] [[Airship Industries|airship]] satellite]] |
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An unmanned lighter-than-air vehicle, the HAA was proposed to operate at a height of above {{convert|60000|ft|m}} in a quasi-geostationary position to deliver persistent [[orbital station keeping]] as a [[surveillance aircraft]] platform, telecommunications relay, or a weather observer. They originally proposed to launch their HAA in 2008. The airship would be in the air for up to one month at a time and was intended to survey a {{convert|600|mi|km|adj=on}} diameter of land. It was to use solar cells to provide its power and would be unmanned during its flight. The production concept would be {{convert|500|ft|m}} long and {{convert|150|ft|m}} in diameter. To minimize weight. it was to be composed of high strength fabrics and use lightweight propulsion technologies. |
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A subscale demonstrator unit for this project, the "'''High Altitude Long Endurance-Demonstrator'''" (HALE-D), was built by Lockheed Martin and launched on a test flight on July 27, 2011, to demonstrate key technologies critical to the development of unmanned airships.<ref name=Lockheed27july2011/> The airship was supposed to reach an altitude of {{convert|60000|ft|m}}, but a problem with the helium levels<ref name=AkronBeacon27July2011 /> occurred at {{convert|32000|ft|m}} which prevented it from reaching its target altitude, and the flight was terminated. It descended and landed at a speed of about 20 feet per second<ref name=AkronBeacon27July2011>{{cite news |author= Jim Mackinnon, |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130411063122/http://www.ohio.com/news/break-news/lockheed-martin-s-prototype-blimp-crashes-during-maiden-voyage-with-video-1.226880 |title= Lockheed Martin's prototype blimp crashes during maiden voyage |work= [[Akron Beacon Journal]] |date= July 27, 2011}}</ref> in a heavily forested area in Pennsylvania.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blimpinfo.com/uncategorized/lockheed-martin-high-altitude-airship-makes-maiden-voyage/ |title= Lockheed Martin High Altitude Airship’s Maiden Voyage Aborted |publisher= [[Lighter-Than-Air Society]] |date=July 27, 2011}}</ref> Two days after the landing, before the vehicle was recovered from the crash site, the vehicle was destroyed by fire.<ref>{{cite news |author= Jim Mackinnon |url= http://web.archive.org/web/20160408033319/http://www.ohio.com/news/top-stories/lockheed-martin-s-prototype-airship-burns-1.227688 |title= Lockheed Martin's prototype airship burns |work= Akron Beacon Journal |date= August 2, 2011 }}</ref> |
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===Stratospheric airship=== |
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A '''stratospheric airship''' is a powered airship designed to fly at very high altitudes {{convert|30000|to|70000|ft|km|abbr=off}}. Most designs are remote-operated aircraft/unmanned aerial vehicles (ROA/[[Unmanned aerial vehicle|UAV]]). To date none of these designs have received approval from the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] to fly in U.S. airspace. |
A '''stratospheric airship''' is a powered airship designed to fly at very high altitudes {{convert|30000|to|70000|ft|km|abbr=off}}. Most designs are remote-operated aircraft/unmanned aerial vehicles (ROA/[[Unmanned aerial vehicle|UAV]]). To date none of these designs have received approval from the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] to fly in U.S. airspace. |
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Stratospheric airship efforts are being developed in at least five countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Airships: Making a Comeback |url= https://www.aviationtoday.com/2004/04/01/airships-making-a-comeback/ |publisher= Aviation Today |date= 1 April 2004}}</ref> |
Stratospheric airship efforts are being developed in at least five countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Airships: Making a Comeback |url= https://www.aviationtoday.com/2004/04/01/airships-making-a-comeback/ |publisher= Aviation Today |date= 1 April 2004}}</ref> |
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and [[South Korea]] are also planning to deploy HAAs. South Korea has been conducting flight tests for several years with a vehicle from [[Worldwide Aeros]].<ref>{{cite press release |title= Aeros Completes 50 M Envelope For South Korea High-Altitude Airship Program |publisher= Worldwide Aeros Corp |date= 30 August 2002 |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081121114603/http://www.aerosml.com/pr08-02.asp}}</ref> |
and [[South Korea]] are also planning to deploy HAAs. South Korea has been conducting flight tests for several years with a vehicle from [[Worldwide Aeros]].<ref>{{cite press release |title= Aeros Completes 50 M Envelope For South Korea High-Altitude Airship Program |publisher= Worldwide Aeros Corp |date= 30 August 2002 |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081121114603/http://www.aerosml.com/pr08-02.asp}}</ref> |
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===Lockheed-Martin High-Altitude Airship=== |
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=== Aircraft === |
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The United States Department of Defense [[Missile Defense Agency]] contracted [[Lockheed Martin]] to construct a '''High-Altitude Airship''' (HAA) to enhance its [[Ballistic Missile Defense System]] (BMDS).<ref>{{cite web |title=High Altitude Airship (HAA) |publisher=[[Lockheed Martin]] |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101114211650/http://www.lockheedmartin.com/products/HighAltitudeAirship/index.html }}</ref> |
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[[File:Pathfinder Plus solar aircraft over Hawaii.jpg|thumb|[[NASA Pathfinder|NASA Pathfinder Plus]]]] |
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[[File:Helios checkout flight (kauai).ogg|thumb|video of helios in flight]] |
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[[File:Centurion-EC98-44822-5.jpg|thumb|[[NASA Centurion]]]] |
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An unmanned lighter-than-air vehicle, the HAA was proposed to operate at a height of above {{convert|60000|ft|m}} in a quasi-geostationary position to deliver persistent [[orbital station keeping]] as a [[surveillance aircraft]] platform, telecommunications relay, or a weather observer. They originally proposed to launch their HAA in 2008. The airship would be in the air for up to one month at a time and was intended to survey a {{convert|600|mi|km|adj=on}} diameter of land. It was to use solar cells to provide its power and would be unmanned during its flight. The production concept would be {{convert|500|ft|m}} long and {{convert|150|ft|m}} in diameter. To minimize weight. it was to be composed of high strength fabrics and use lightweight propulsion technologies. |
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In January 2018, several systems were in development:<ref>{{cite news |url= http://aviationweek.com/leading-edge/aerovironments-stratospheric-satellites-persistence-pays |title= AeroVironment's Stratospheric Satellites Persistence Pays Off |date= Jan 12, 2018 |author= Graham Warwick |magazine= Aviation Week & Space Technology}}</ref> |
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* [[AeroVironment]] will design and development solar-powered UAV prototypes for $65 million for HAPSMobile, a joint venture 95% funded and owned by Japanese telco [[SoftBank]]; its {{cvt|247|ft}}-span [[Helios Prototype]] first flew in 1999 and reached {{cvt|96,863|ft}} in 2001 before breaking up in flight in 2003; in 2002, its {{cvt|121|ft}}-span [[NASA Pathfinder|Pathfinder Plus]] carried a communications payload to FL650; its hydrogen-powered [[Global Observer]] designed to stay aloft a week in the stratosphere first flew in 2010 but crashed in 2011. |
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* [[Airbus]] builds the [[Airbus Zephyr|Zephyr]], spanning {{cvt|80|ft}} and weighing less than {{cvt|100|lb}}, it is designed to stay aloft for months; a 2010 version flew for 14 days, while in July 2018, a Zephyr flew continuously for 25 days, 23 hours, and 57 minutes;<ref>{{cite news |author= Mark Schauer ([[United States Army Test and Evaluation Command|ATEC]]) |url= https://www.army.mil/article/217347/unmanned_aircraft_stays_aloft_for_nearly_26_days_above_us_army_yuma_proving_ground |date= February 12, 2019 |title= Unmanned aircraft stays aloft for nearly 26 days above U.S. Army Yuma Proving Ground |publisher= U.S. Army}}</ref> |
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* [[Facebook]] worked on developing the [[Facebook Aquila|Aquila]] solar-powered high-altitude flying-wing UAV to provide internet connectivity, spanning {{cvt|132|ft}} and weighing {{cvt|935|lb}}. It made two low-altitude test flights in 2016 and 2017 and is designed to stay aloft at FL650 for 90 days. On June 27, 2018, Facebook announced it will halt the project and plan to have other companies build the drones.<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://engineering.fb.com/2018/06/27/connectivity/high-altitude-connectivity-the-next-chapter/ |title= High altitude connectivity: The next chapter |date=2018-06-27 |first=Yael |last=Maguire |work= Engineering at Meta}}</ref> |
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* [[Thales Alenia Space]] develops the Stratobus unmanned, solar-powered stratospheric [[airship]], {{cvt|377|ft}} long and weighting {{cvt|15,000|lb}} including a {{cvt|550|lb}} payload, it is designed for a five-year mission with annual servicing and a prototype is planned for late 2020 |
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* [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation]] flew a {{cvt|147|ft}}-span solar-powered UAV to FL650 in a 15 hours test flight in July 2017 |
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* Russia's [[Lavochkin]] design bureau is flight-testing the LA-252, an {{cvt|82|ft}}-span, {{cvt|255|lb}} solar-powered UAV designed to stay aloft 100 days in the stratosphere. |
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*[[H-Aero]] LTA-based launch systems for Mars exploration,<ref>{{Cite journal |url= https://arxiv.org/pdf/1304.5098.pdf |title= Ultralight Solar Powered Hybrid Research Drone |author= Singer, Cs |journal= Concepts and Approaches for Mars Exploration |date= June 2012}}</ref> with development taking place via terrestrial high-altitude platforms. The first systems are currently being tested.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bnn.de/mittelbaden/baden-baden/flugzeug-hubschrauber-und-luftschiff-in-einem-baden-badener-konstrukteur-entwickelt-neues-fluggeraet |title = Flugzeug, Hubschrauber und Luftschiff in einem: Baden-Badener Konstrukteur entwickelt neues Fluggerät |date = 11 February 2021|work= [[Badische Neueste Nachrichten]] |lang= de}}</ref>{{better ref needed|reason=an english ref would be more appropriate in the english wikipedia|date=February 2023}} |
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A subscale demonstrator unit for this project, the "'''High Altitude Long Endurance-Demonstrator'''" (HALE-D), was built by Lockheed Martin and launched on a test flight on July 27, 2011, to demonstrate key technologies critical to the development of unmanned airships.<ref name=Lockheed27july2011>{{cite press release |url= https://news.lockheedmartin.com/2011-07-27-Lockheed-Martin-U-S-Army-Demonstrate-HALE-D-During-Abbreviated-Flight |title= Lockheed Martin, U.S. Army Demonstrate HALE-D During Abbreviated Flight |publisher= Lockheed Martin |date= July 27, 2011 }}</ref> The airship was supposed to reach an altitude of {{convert|60000|ft|m}}, but a problem with the helium levels<ref name=AkronBeacon27July2011 /> occurred at {{convert|32000|ft|m}} which prevented it from reaching its target altitude, and the flight was terminated. It descended and landed at a speed of about 20 feet per second<ref name=AkronBeacon27July2011>{{cite news |author= Jim Mackinnon, |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130411063122/http://www.ohio.com/news/break-news/lockheed-martin-s-prototype-blimp-crashes-during-maiden-voyage-with-video-1.226880 |title= Lockheed Martin's prototype blimp crashes during maiden voyage |work= [[Akron Beacon Journal]] |date= July 27, 2011}}</ref> in a heavily forested area in Pennsylvania.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blimpinfo.com/uncategorized/lockheed-martin-high-altitude-airship-makes-maiden-voyage/ |title= Lockheed Martin High Altitude Airship’s Maiden Voyage Aborted |publisher= [[Lighter-Than-Air Society]] |date=July 27, 2011}}</ref> Two days after the landing, before the vehicle was recovered from the crash site, the vehicle was destroyed by fire.<ref>{{cite news |author= Jim Mackinnon |url= http://web.archive.org/web/20160408033319/http://www.ohio.com/news/top-stories/lockheed-martin-s-prototype-airship-burns-1.227688 |title= Lockheed Martin's prototype airship burns |work= Akron Beacon Journal |date= August 2, 2011 }}</ref> |
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UK mapping agency [[Ordnance Survey]] (OS), a subsidiary of the [[Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy]], is developing the A3, a 38 m (125 ft) wingspan, 149 kg (330 lb) twin-boom solar-powered HAPS designed to stay aloft at {{cvt|67,000|ft}} for 90 days carrying a {{cvt|25|kg}} payload.<!--ref name=AvWeek18feb2019--> |
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OS owns 51% of UK company [[Astigan]], led by [[Brian Jones (aeronaut)|Brian Jones]], developing the A3 since 2014 with scale model test flights in 2015 and full-scale low-altitude flights in 2016.<!--ref name=AvWeek18feb2019--> |
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High-altitude flights should begin in 2019, to complete tests in 2020 with a commercial introduction as for [[environmental monitoring]], [[cartography|mapping]], communications and security.<ref name=AvWeek18feb2019>{{cite news |url= http://aviationweek.com/future-aerospace/week-technology-feb-18-22-2019 |title= The Week In Technology, Feb. 18-22, 2019 |date= Feb 18, 2019 |author= Tony Osborne |work= Aviation Week & Space Technology}}</ref> |
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==Balloons== |
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Designed by Prismatic Ltd., now [[BAE Systems]], the 35 m (115 ft)-wingspan [[BAE Systems PHASA-35]] made its [[maiden flight]] in February 2020 from the [[Woomera Test Range]] in South Australia; it should fly its {{cvt|15|kg}} payload at around 70,000 ft for days or weeks.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.flightglobal.com/aerospace/bae-joins-high-altitude-race-with-maiden-phasa-35-flight/136767.article |title= BAE joins high-altitude race with maiden PHASA-35 flight |author= Dan Thisdell |date= 17 February 2020 |work= Flightglobal}}</ref> |
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{{Main|Geostationary balloon satellite}} |
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[[File:Geostationary balloon satellite.jpeg|upright|thumb|[[High-altitude balloon#Geostationary balloon satellite|Geostationary balloon satellite]]]] |
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[[File:Google Loon - Launch Event.jpg|thumb|A Google [[Project Loon]] balloon]] |
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A '''geostationary balloon satellite''' (GBS) flies in the [[stratosphere]] ({{convert|60,000|to|70,000|ft|km}} above sea level) at a fixed point over the Earth's surface. At that altitude the air has 1/10 of its [[air density|density]] is at [[sea level]]. The average wind speed at these altitudes is less than that at the surface.{{citation needed|date=January 2017|reason=Is it?}} |
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==History== <!-- Let's keep it brief and specific to the atmosat CONCEPT — not UAVs in general and NOT too many details of specific atmosats that have their own articles --> |
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A GBS could be used to provide [[broadband Internet access]] over a large area.<ref>{{cite conference |title= A low cost alternative for satellites- tethered ultra-high altitude balloons |publisher= IEEE |url= https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5966806 |conference= Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Recent Advances in Space Technologies - RAST2011|date= June 2011|last1=Izet-Unsalan|first1=Kunsel|last2=Unsalan|first2=Deniz|pages=13–16 }}</ref> |
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===HALE=== |
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One prior project was the [[Google]]'s [[Project Loon]], which envisioned using helium-filled [[high-altitude balloon]]s. |
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The idea of HALE was acknowledged in technical papers as early as 1983, with ''A Preliminary Study of Solar Powered Aircraft and Associated Power Trains'' written by Lockheed for the NASA,<ref name=Nasa1jan2007>{{cite report |url= https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20070004936/downloads/20070004936.pdf |author=C.L. Nickol |display-authors= etal |title= High Altitude Long Endurance Air Vehicle Analysis of Alternatives and Technology Requirements Development |publisher= [[NASA]] |date= January 1, 2007}}</ref> the actual state of affairs within technology of a time during the 1970s, allowed for scientists to later consider the possibility of Long endurance flight as a conceivable inclusion to aviation of [[suborbital]] spacecraft.<ref>{{cite journal |author= D.W. Hall (Lockheed) |display-authors= etal |url= https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19840005126/downloads/19840005126.pdf |title= A Preliminary Study of Solar Powered Aircraft and Associated Power Trains |publisher= NASA Langley Research Centre |date= December 1983}}</ref> One of the first papers to explicitly mention ''Long Endurance'' is J.W.Youngblood, T.A. Talay & R.J. Pegg ''Design of Long Endurance Unmanned Airplanes Incorporating Solar and fuel cell propulsion'', published 1984.<ref name=Nasa1jan2007/> An early paper which incorporates both high-altitude and long-endurance as the area of investigation, is M.D. Maughmer ([[Pennsylvania State University]]) and D.M. Somers ([[Langley Research Center|NASA Langley]]) ''Design and experimental results for a high-altitude, long-endurance airfoil''. The authors state interest in development of such a craft lay in the need to fulfill communication relay missions, weather monitoring, and to obtain information for the targeting of [[cruise missiles]]. This paper was published in the year 1989.<ref>{{cite journal |author1= M.D. Maughmer |author2= D.M. Somers |url= http://arc.aiaa.org/doi/abs/10.2514/3.45736?journalCode=ja |title= Design and experimental results for a high-altitude, long-endurance airfoil |journal= Journal of Aircraft |volume= 26 |number= 2 |date= February 1989 |publisher= [[American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics]] Association}}</ref> |
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The research paper, ''2025'', written for the USAF and presented in July 1996, foresaw routine HALE-UAV operations happening within the early 21st century. In contemplation of a future of the military, projected to 2025, the authors thought a HALE in flight for 24 hours. Long endurance ("long-loiter") is held synonymous with the concept of maintaining air occupation, "the ability to hold an adversary continuously at risk from lethal and non-lethal effects from the air".<ref name=USAFaug1996>{{cite report |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151210233133if_/http://csat.au.af.mil/2025/volume3/vol3ch13.pdf |author= B.W. Carmichael |display-authors= etal |title=Strikestar 2025 |publisher= The U.S. Air-force |date= August 1996 }}</ref> |
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The [[Defense Airborne Reconnaissance Office]] at some time made demonstrations of long-endurance UAV craft.<ref name=USAFaug1996/> |
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In 2002, G. Frulla wrote a paper on very long endurance.<ref>{{cite conference |author= G Frulla |url= https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1243/09544100260369722 |title= Preliminary reliability design of a solar-powered high-altitude very long endurance unmanned air vehicle |conference= Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part G: |journal= Journal of Aerospace Engineering |date= April 1, 2002 |volume= 216 |number= 4 |pages= 189-196 |url-access= subscription }}</ref> |
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An important goal of the [[CAPECON]] project, instigated by the European Union, was the development of HALE vehicles.<ref name=PolishAS2004/> |
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==Rotorcraft== |
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===NASA ERAST Program=== |
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; Boeing A160 Hummingbird<!--first forward flight on January 29, 2002--> |
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The initial goals under the NASA's [[NASA ERAST Program|Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology (ERAST)]] project were to demonstrate sustained flight at an altitude near 100,000 feet and flying non-stop for at least 24 hours, including at least 14 hours above 50,000 feet.<ref name=NASAheliosFact>{{cite web |title= NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: Helios Prototype |url= https://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/FactSheets/FS-068-DFRC.html |publisher=NASA |date=February 28, 2014 }}</ref> The early development path of atmospheric satellites included the [[NASA Pathfinder]] (exceeding 50,000 feet in 1995), the [[NASA Pathfinder#Pathfinder-Plus|Pathfinder Plus]] (80,000 feet in 1998), and the [[NASA Centurion]] which was modified into a prototype configuration for the [[NASA Helios]] (96,000 feet in 2001).<ref name=NASAheliosFact/> An Airbus/[[Qinetiq Zephyr]] flew for 14 days in the summer of 2010, and in 2014 a Zephyr 7 stayed up for 11 days in the short days of winter whilst carrying a small payload for the British Ministry of Defence.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/transport/11064789/Fly-11-days-non-stop-Now-thats-long-haul.html |newspaper= [[Daily Telegraph]] |title= Fly 11 days non-stop? Now that's long-haul |first= Alan |last= Tovey |date= 31 August 2014}}</ref> |
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: The [[Boeing A160 Hummingbird]] is a rotorcraft produced by Boeing.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://verticalmag.com/press-releases/fdc-aerofilter-selected-by-boeing-phantom-works-for-the-a160-hummingbird-html/ |title= FDC/aerofilter selected by Boeing Phantom Works for the A160 Hummingbird |author= FDC/aerofilter |via= Vertical magazine, MHM publishing |date= October 28, 2005}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
Revision as of 23:05, 8 February 2023
Atmospheric satellite (United States usage, abbreviated atmosat) or pseudo-satellite (British usage) is a marketing term for an aircraft that operates in the atmosphere at high altitudes for extended periods of time, in order to provide services conventionally provided by an artificial satellite orbiting in space.
Atmospheric satellites remain aloft through atmospheric lift, either aerostatic/buoyancy (e.g., balloons) or aerodynamic (e.g., airplanes). By contrast, conventional satellites in Earth orbit operate in the vacuum of space and remain in flight through centrifugal force derived from their orbital speed. To date, all atmosats have been unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).
Definitions
- High-altitude long endurance (HALE)
- an airplane which functions optimally at high-altitude (as high as 60,000 feet)[1] and is capable of flights which last for considerable periods of time without recourse to landing. The tropopause represents high-altitude.[2]
- High-altitude platform station (HAPS)
- defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as "a station on an object at an altitude of 20 to 50 km and at a specified, nominal, fixed point relative to the Earth" in its ITU Radio Regulations (RR).[3] HAPS can also be the abbreviation for high-altitude pseudo-satellite.
History
The idea of HALE was acknowledged in technical papers as early as 1983, with A Preliminary Study of Solar Powered Aircraft and Associated Power Trains written by Lockheed for the NASA,[4] the actual state of affairs within technology of a time during the 1970s, allowed for scientists to later consider the possibility of Long endurance flight as a conceivable inclusion to aviation of suborbital spacecraft.[5] One of the first papers to explicitly mention Long Endurance is J.W.Youngblood, T.A. Talay & R.J. Pegg Design of Long Endurance Unmanned Airplanes Incorporating Solar and fuel cell propulsion, published 1984.[4] An early paper which incorporates both high-altitude and long-endurance as the area of investigation, is M.D. Maughmer (Pennsylvania State University) and D.M. Somers (NASA Langley) Design and experimental results for a high-altitude, long-endurance airfoil. The authors state interest in development of such a craft lay in the need to fulfill communication relay missions, weather monitoring, and to obtain information for the targeting of cruise missiles. This paper was published in the year 1989.[6]
The research paper, Strikestar 2025, written for the USAF and presented in July 1996, foresaw routine HALE-UAV operations happening within the early 21st century. In contemplation of a future of the military, projected to 2025, the authors thought a HALE in flight for 24 hours. Long endurance ("long-loiter") is held synonymous with the concept of maintaining air occupation, "the ability to hold an adversary continuously at risk from lethal and non-lethal effects from the air".[7] The Defense Airborne Reconnaissance Office at some time made demonstrations of long-endurance UAV craft.[7]
In 2002, G. Frulla wrote a paper on very long endurance.[8] An important goal of the CAPECON project, instigated by the European Union, was the development of HALE vehicles.[9]
Design
An atmosat remains aloft through atmospheric lift, in contrast to a satellite in Earth orbit which moves freely at high speed in the vacuum of space, and orbits due to its centrifugal force matching the force of gravity. Satellites are expensive to build and launch, and any changes to their orbit requires expending their extremely limited fuel supply. Atmospheric satellites fly very slowly. They are intended to provide their various services more economically and with more versatility than current low Earth orbit satellites.[10]
Operating altitudes are expected to be in the tropopause—at approximately 65,000 feet—where winds are generally less than 5 knots and clouds do not block sunlight.[11] It is desirable in the United States to operate above 60,000 feet, above which the Federal Aviation Administration does not regulate the airspace.[11]
There are two classes of atmosat, respectively gaining their lift through either aerostatic (e.g., balloons) or aerodynamic (e.g., airplanes) forces. In order to remain aloft for long periods, the NASA and Titan Aerospace designs use propeller-driven electric airplanes powered by solar cells, in contrast to Google's Project Loon which envisions using helium-filled high-altitude balloons.[10]
- Power
- A HAP can be a manned or unmanned airplane, a balloon, or an airship. All require electrical power to keep themselves and their payload functional. While current HAPS are powered by batteries or engines, mission time is limited by the need for recharging/refueling. Therefore, alternative means are being considered for the future. Solar cells are one of the best options currently being used under trial for HAPS (Helios, Lindstrand HALE).[12]
- Altitude selection
- Whether an airship or an aeroplane, a major challenge is the ability of the HAP to maintain stationkeeping in the face of winds. An operating altitude between 17 and 22 km is chosen because in most regions of the world this represents a layer of relatively mild wind and turbulence above the jet stream. Although the wind profile may vary considerably with latitude and with season, a form similar to that shown will usually obtain. This altitude (> 17 km) is also above commercial air-traffic heights, which would otherwise prove a potentially prohibitive constraint.[13]
- Comparison to satellites
- Since HAPS operate at much lower altitudes than satellites, it is possible to cover a small region much more effectively. Lower altitude also means much lower telecommunications link budget (hence lower power consumption) and smaller round-trip delay compared to satellites. Furthermore, deploying a satellite requires significant time and monetary resources, in terms of development and launch. HAPS, on the other hand, are comparatively less expensive and are rapidly deployable. Another major difference is that a satellite, once launched, cannot be landed for maintenance, while HAPS can.[14]
Applications
Proposed applications for atmosats include border security, maritime traffic monitoring, anti-piracy operations, disaster response, agricultural observation, atmospheric observation, weather monitoring, communications relay, oceanographic research, Earth imaging and telecommunications.[11] Facebook is reportedly envisioning providing Internet access to the African continent with a fleet of 11,000 vehicles.[10]
- Telecommunications
- One of the latest uses of HAPS has been for radiocommunication service. Research on HAPS is being actively carried largely in Europe, where scientists are considering them as a platform to deliver high-speed connectivity to users, over areas of up to 400 km[clarify]. It has gained significant interest because HAPS will be able to deliver bandwidth and capacity similar to a broadband wireless access network (such as WiMAX) while providing a coverage area similar to that of a satellite. High-altitude airships can improve the military's ability to communicate in remote areas such as those in Afghanistan, where mountainous terrain frequently interferes with communications signals.[15][infringing link?]
- Surveillance and intelligence
- One of the best examples of a high-altitude platform used for surveillance and security is Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk UAV used by the US Air Force. It has a service ceiling of 20 km and can stay in the air for continuous 36 hours. It carries a highly sophisticated sensor system including radar, optical, and infrared imagers. It is powered by a turbofan engine and is able to deliver digital sensor data in realtime to a ground station.[16]
- Real-time monitoring
- Another future use that is currently being investigated is monitoring of a particular area or region for activities such as flood detection, seismic monitoring, remote sensing and disaster management.[17]
- Weather and environmental monitoring
- Perhaps the most common use of high-altitude platforms is for environment/weather monitoring. Numerous experiments are conducted through high-altitude balloons mounted with scientific equipment, which is used to measure environmental changes or to keep track of weather. Recently, NASA in partnership with The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), has started using Global Hawk UAV to study Earth's atmosphere.[18]
- rocket launch platform
- Due to the height, more than 90% of atmospheric matter is below the high-altitude platform. This reduces atmospheric drag for starting rockets.
"As a rough estimate, a rocket that reaches an altitude of 20 km when launched from the ground will reach 100 km if launched at an altitude of 20 km from a balloon."[19] Such a platform has been proposed to allow the usage of (long) mass drivers for launching goods or humans into orbit.[20][page needed]
Airplanes
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Pathfinder_Plus_solar_aircraft_over_Hawaii.jpg/220px-Pathfinder_Plus_solar_aircraft_over_Hawaii.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Centurion-EC98-44822-5.jpg/220px-Centurion-EC98-44822-5.jpg)
To enable night time operation and ensure endurance through consecutive 24-hour day/night cycles, in daylight hours solar panels charge batteries[11] or fuel cells[21] which subsequently power the vehicle during hours of darkness. An atmospheric satellite may initially ascend at night under battery power, and reach altitude soon after dawn to allow solar panels to take advantage of a full day's sunlight.[10]
Operational
- Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk
- The Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk is an example of a HALE UAV. A total 42 of them have been in service with the United States Air Force, beginning in 1998.[22] It carries high-fidelity radar, electro-optical, and infrared sensors, enabling it to surveil as much as 40,000 square miles (100,000 km2) of terrain a day.
- Guizhou WZ-7 Soaring Dragon
- The Guizhou WZ-7 Soaring Dragon, produced by Guizhou Aircraft Industry Corporation, is a HALE UAV used for military reconnaissance, with a service ceiling of 18 km and range of 7,000 km.
- Bayraktar Akıncı
- The Bayraktar Akıncı was produced as a HALE class [citation needed] UAV and is set to go into service in 2021 or late 2020.[23]
Prototypes
- NASA ERAST Program
- The initial goals under the NASA's Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology (ERAST) project were to demonstrate sustained flight at an altitude near 100,000 feet and flying non-stop for at least 24 hours, including at least 14 hours above 50,000 feet.[21] The early development path of atmospheric satellites included the NASA Pathfinder (exceeding 50,000 feet in 1995), the Pathfinder Plus (80,000 feet in 1998), and the NASA Centurion which was modified into a prototype configuration for the NASA Helios (96,000 feet in 2001).[21] An Airbus/Qinetiq Zephyr flew for 14 days in the summer of 2010, and in 2014 a Zephyr 7 stayed up for 11 days in the short days of winter whilst carrying a small payload for the British Ministry of Defence.[24]
- Lockheed Martin RQ-3 DarkStar
- The Lockheed Martin RQ-3 DarkStar is a high-stealth oriented craft built to function optimally within highly defended areas, in order to do reconnaissance. The craft is intended to hover over targets for at least eight hours, at heights of 13.7 km (45,000 ft) and beyond.[9][25]
- General Atomics ALTUS II
- The General Atomics ALTUS II, (Latin: Altus meaning high) runs at altitudes of 18.3 km (60,000 ft), with endurance times of 24 hours approximately, with variations of capabilities of endurance dependent on the altitude of operation.[26]
- Scaled Composites Proteus
- The Scaled Composites Proteus operates at altitudes of 19.8 km (65,000 ft), while carrying a 1,100 kg weight, with an endurance time of 18 hours maximum.[27]
- Airbus Zephyr
- The Airbus Zephyr was designed to fly at a maximum height of altitude 21.3 km (70 000 ft), and in a 2006 flight, it was airborne for 80 hours, which was then was the longest flight made by a HALE vehicle.[28] Model 7 holds the official long-endurance record for an UAV of 336 hours, 22 minutes and 8 seconds, a flight made from the 9th to the 23rd of July 2010.[29][30]
- Boeing Phantom Eye
- The Boeing Phantom Eye is able to maintain flight at altitude for four days with a payload;[31] a design variant is able to maintain flight at altitude for ten days, while carrying a payload.[32][33]
- Shenyang Aircraft Corporation Divine Eagle
- The Divine Eagle, produced by Shenyang Aircraft Corporation, is a large HALE UAV with an extremely large wingspan, and designed for cruising at very high altitude. It is a twin-boom aircraft. It is speculated to carry a series of airborne early warning radars of the active electronically scanned array type, and notably with some anti-stealth capability. During its development, it was designated an "anti stealth UAV". It is one of a series of SYAC UAV.
- Astigan A3
- UK mapping agency Ordnance Survey (OS), a subsidiary of the Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, is developing the A3, a 38 m (125 ft) wingspan, 149 kg (330 lb) twin-boom solar-powered HAPS designed to stay aloft at 67,000 ft (20,000 m) for 90 days carrying a 25 kg (55 lb) payload. OS owns 51% of UK company Astigan, led by Brian Jones, developing the A3 since 2014 with scale model test flights in 2015 and full-scale low-altitude flights in 2016. High-altitude flights should begin in 2019, to complete tests in 2020 with a commercial introduction as for environmental monitoring, mapping, communications and security.[34]
- Facebook Aquila
- Facebook's UAV-based Aquila system expects to use laser communication technology to provide Internet communication among UAVs, and also between UAVs and ground stations that in turn will connect to rural areas.[35] The Aquila UAV is a carbon fiber, solar-powered flying wing design about the size of a passenger jet.[35][36][37] Aquila's first test flight took place on June 28, 2016.[37] It flew for ninety minutes, reaching a maximum altitude of 2150 feet,[38] and was substantially damaged when a twenty-foot section of the righthand wing broke off during final approach to landing.[39][40] The Aquila is designed and manufactured by the UK company Ascenta.[41]
In January 2018, several systems were in development:[42]
- AeroVironment will design and development solar-powered UAV prototypes for $65 million for HAPSMobile, a joint venture 95% funded and owned by Japanese telco SoftBank; its 247 ft (75 m)-span Helios Prototype first flew in 1999 and reached 96,863 ft (29,524 m) in 2001 before breaking up in flight in 2003; in 2002, its 121 ft (37 m)-span Pathfinder Plus carried a communications payload to FL650; its hydrogen-powered Global Observer designed to stay aloft a week in the stratosphere first flew in 2010 but crashed in 2011.
- Airbus builds the Zephyr, spanning 80 ft (24 m) and weighing less than 100 lb (45 kg), it is designed to stay aloft for months; a 2010 version flew for 14 days, while in July 2018, a Zephyr flew continuously for 25 days, 23 hours, and 57 minutes;[43]
- Facebook worked on developing the Aquila solar-powered high-altitude flying-wing UAV to provide internet connectivity, spanning 132 ft (40 m) and weighing 935 lb (424 kg). It made two low-altitude test flights in 2016 and 2017 and is designed to stay aloft at FL650 for 90 days. On June 27, 2018, Facebook announced it will halt the project and plan to have other companies build the drones.[44]
- Thales Alenia Space develops the Stratobus unmanned, solar-powered stratospheric airship, 377 ft (115 m) long and weighting 15,000 lb (6,800 kg) including a 550 lb (250 kg) payload, it is designed for a five-year mission with annual servicing and a prototype is planned for late 2020
- China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation flew a 147 ft (45 m)-span solar-powered UAV to FL650 in a 15 hours test flight in July 2017
- Russia's Lavochkin design bureau is flight-testing the LA-252, an 82 ft (25 m)-span, 255 lb (116 kg) solar-powered UAV designed to stay aloft 100 days in the stratosphere.
- H-Aero LTA-based launch systems for Mars exploration,[45] with development taking place via terrestrial high-altitude platforms. The first systems are currently being tested.[46][better source needed]
- BAE Systems PHASA-35
- Designed by Prismatic Ltd., now BAE Systems, the 35 m (115 ft)-wingspan BAE Systems PHASA-35 made its maiden flight in February 2020 from the Woomera Test Range in South Australia; it should fly its 15 kg (33 lb) payload at around 70,000 ft for days or weeks.[47]
- Swift Engineering SULE
- The Swift Engineering's Swift Ultra Long Endurance SULE completed its maiden flight partnership with NASA's Ames Research Center in July 2020.[48]
Concepts
- HALE PW-114
- The HALE PW-114 is a concept craft by the Polish Academy of Sciences equipped with sensors to fly at a height of 20 kilometres for a duration of 40 hours.[9]
- Luminati Substrata
- Luminati Aerospace claims its Substrata solar-powered aircraft could remain aloft indefinitely up to a latitude of 50° through formation flight like migratory geese, reducing by 79% the power required for the trailing aircraft and allowing smaller airframes.[49]
Airships
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Stratobus_artiste.jpg/220px-Stratobus_artiste.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Skynet_blimp.jpg/220px-Skynet_blimp.jpg)
A stratospheric airship is a powered airship designed to fly at very high altitudes 30,000 to 70,000 feet (9.1 to 21.3 kilometres). Most designs are remote-operated aircraft/unmanned aerial vehicles (ROA/UAV). To date none of these designs have received approval from the FAA to fly in U.S. airspace. Stratospheric airship efforts are being developed in at least five countries.[50]
The first stratospheric powered airship flight took place in 1969, reaching 70,000 feet (21 km) for 2 hours with a 5 pounds (2.3 kilograms) payload.[51] On December 4, 2005, a team led by Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), sponsored by the Army Space and Missile Defense Command (ASMDC), successfully demonstrated powered flight of the HiSentinel stratospheric airship at an altitude of 74,000 feet (23 km).[52] Japan[53] and South Korea are also planning to deploy HAAs. South Korea has been conducting flight tests for several years with a vehicle from Worldwide Aeros.[54]
Lockheed-Martin High-Altitude Airship
The United States Department of Defense Missile Defense Agency contracted Lockheed Martin to construct a High-Altitude Airship (HAA) to enhance its Ballistic Missile Defense System (BMDS).[55]
An unmanned lighter-than-air vehicle, the HAA was proposed to operate at a height of above 60,000 feet (18,000 m) in a quasi-geostationary position to deliver persistent orbital station keeping as a surveillance aircraft platform, telecommunications relay, or a weather observer. They originally proposed to launch their HAA in 2008. The airship would be in the air for up to one month at a time and was intended to survey a 600-mile (970 km) diameter of land. It was to use solar cells to provide its power and would be unmanned during its flight. The production concept would be 500 feet (150 m) long and 150 feet (46 m) in diameter. To minimize weight. it was to be composed of high strength fabrics and use lightweight propulsion technologies.
A subscale demonstrator unit for this project, the "High Altitude Long Endurance-Demonstrator" (HALE-D), was built by Lockheed Martin and launched on a test flight on July 27, 2011, to demonstrate key technologies critical to the development of unmanned airships.[56] The airship was supposed to reach an altitude of 60,000 feet (18,000 m), but a problem with the helium levels[57] occurred at 32,000 feet (9,800 m) which prevented it from reaching its target altitude, and the flight was terminated. It descended and landed at a speed of about 20 feet per second[57] in a heavily forested area in Pennsylvania.[58] Two days after the landing, before the vehicle was recovered from the crash site, the vehicle was destroyed by fire.[59]
Balloons
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Geostationary_balloon_satellite.jpeg/170px-Geostationary_balloon_satellite.jpeg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Google_Loon_-_Launch_Event.jpg/220px-Google_Loon_-_Launch_Event.jpg)
A geostationary balloon satellite (GBS) flies in the stratosphere (60,000 to 70,000 feet (18 to 21 km) above sea level) at a fixed point over the Earth's surface. At that altitude the air has 1/10 of its density is at sea level. The average wind speed at these altitudes is less than that at the surface.[citation needed]
A GBS could be used to provide broadband Internet access over a large area.[60] One prior project was the Google's Project Loon, which envisioned using helium-filled high-altitude balloons.
Rotorcraft
- Boeing A160 Hummingbird
- The Boeing A160 Hummingbird is a rotorcraft produced by Boeing.[61]
See also
- Geostationary satellite – Circular orbit above Earth's Equator and following the direction of Earth's rotation
- Geostationary balloon satellite – Balloon released into the stratosphere, most commonly weather balloons
- High-altitude balloon – Balloon released into the stratosphere, most commonly weather balloons
- Boeing Insitu ScanEagle – Reconnaissance unmanned aerial vehicle
- ThothX Tower – space launch platform tower
- 21st Century Airships – Canadian research and development company
- Integrated Sensor is Structure – Military research program
- Long Endurance Multi-intelligence Vehicle – British hybrid airship prototype
- Myasishchev M-55 – Soviet high-altitude reconnaissance and research aircraft
- TCOM Blue Devil – Canceled US Air Force reconnaissance airship
- Tethered blimp – hot air balloon attached to the ground
- Solar Impulse – Long-range solar-powered aircraft
References
- ^ Pomerleau, Mark (2015-05-27). "Future of unmanned capabilities: MALE vs HALE". Defense One. Government Executive.
- ^ "HALE UAVs Come of Age". Defense Update. Feb 20, 2007.
- ^ "IV. Radio Stations and Systems". Article 1.66A, definition: high altitude platform station (PDF).
{{cite book}}
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- ^ D.W. Hall (Lockheed); et al. (December 1983). "A Preliminary Study of Solar Powered Aircraft and Associated Power Trains" (PDF). NASA Langley Research Centre.
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(help) - ^ M.D. Maughmer; D.M. Somers (February 1989). "Design and experimental results for a high-altitude, long-endurance airfoil". Journal of Aircraft. 26 (2). American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Association.
- ^ a b B.W. Carmichael; et al. (August 1996). Strikestar 2025 (PDF) (Report). The U.S. Air-force.
- ^ G Frulla (April 1, 2002). Preliminary reliability design of a solar-powered high-altitude very long endurance unmanned air vehicle. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part G:. Journal of Aerospace Engineering. Vol. 216, no. 4. pp. 189–196.
{{cite conference}}
: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) - ^ a b c Z. Goraj; et al. (2004). High altitude long endurance unmanned aerial vehicle of a new generation – a design challenge for a low cost, reliable and high performance aircraft (PDF). Vol. 52.
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ignored (help) - ^ a b c d Perez, Sarah; Constine, Josh (March 4, 2014). "Facebook In Talks To Acquire Drone Maker Titan Aerospace". TechCrunch.
- ^ a b c d Dillow, Clay (August 23, 2013). "The drone that may never have to land". Fortune (CNN).
- ^ John Pattinson, Lindstrand Technologies. "HALE Airship - Manufacture, Flight and Operation" (PDF).
- ^ "High-altitude platforms for wireless communications". Electronics & Communication Engineering Journal. June 2001.
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- ^ "High Altitude Airship". Lockheed Martin.
- ^ "RQ-4A Global Hawk (Tier II+ HAE UAV)". Federation of American Scientists.
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- ^ "NASA Recruits Unmanned Aircraft for Earth Science". Space.com. January 17, 2009.
- ^ Nobuyuki Yajima; et al. (2004). "3.7.2.3 Launching Rockets from Ballons (Rockoons)". Scientific ballooning : technology and applications of exploration balloons floating in the stratosphere and the atmospheres of other planets. Springer. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-387-09725-1.
- ^ Gerard K. O'Neill (1981). 2081: a hopeful view of the human future. ISBN 9780671242572.
- ^ a b c "NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: Helios Prototype". NASA. February 28, 2014.
- ^ "Northrop Grumman Unmanned Aircraft Systems Achieve 100,000 Flight Hours". Defense Media Network. Faircount Media Group. Sep 13, 2013.
- ^ Lake, Jon (December 11, 2019). "Turkey's New Raider Takes to the Air". AIN online.
- ^ Tovey, Alan (31 August 2014). "Fly 11 days non-stop? Now that's long-haul". Daily Telegraph.
- ^ "RQ-3A DarkStar Tier III Minus". Intelligence Resource program. Federation of American Scientists. November 28, 1999.
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- ^ Yvonne Gibbs, ed. (Aug 7, 2017) [February 28, 2014]. "Fact Sheet: Proteus High-Altitude Aircraft". NASA Armstrong.
- ^ A. Rapinett (April 2009). "Zephyr: A High Altitude Long Endurance Unmanned Air Vehicle" (PDF). Department of Physics - University of Surrey.
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Absolute Record of class U (Experimental / New Technologies) for Duration
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- ^ a b Perry, Tekla S. (April 13, 2016). "Facebook's Aquila Drone Creates a Laser-net In the Sky". IEEE Spectrum.
- ^ Gershgorn, Dave (February 23, 2016). "Facebook's Enormous Internet Drone is Almost Ready for Primetime". Popular Science.
- ^ a b Metz, Cade (21 July 2016). "Facebook's Giant Internet-Beaming Drone Finally Takes Flight". Wired.
- ^ Newton, Casey (2016-12-16). "Facebook's drone test flight ended with part of the wing snapping off". The Verge.
- ^ "Aviation Investigation - DCA16CA197". NTSB.
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- ^ Maguire, Yael (2018-06-27). "High altitude connectivity: The next chapter". Engineering at Meta.
- ^ Singer, Cs (June 2012). "Ultralight Solar Powered Hybrid Research Drone" (PDF). Concepts and Approaches for Mars Exploration.
- ^ "Flugzeug, Hubschrauber und Luftschiff in einem: Baden-Badener Konstrukteur entwickelt neues Fluggerät". Badische Neueste Nachrichten (in German). 11 February 2021.
- ^ Dan Thisdell (17 February 2020). "BAE joins high-altitude race with maiden PHASA-35 flight". Flightglobal.
- ^ "Swift High-Altitude-Long-Endurance UAS completes first flight". Military & Aerospace Electronics. Endeavor Business Media. July 23, 2020.
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- ^ "Airships: Making a Comeback". Aviation Today. 1 April 2004.
- ^ "Stratospheric Airships". Aerostar.
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- ^ "Expectations soar for our huge new airship". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. December 3, 2004.
- ^ "Aeros Completes 50 M Envelope For South Korea High-Altitude Airship Program" (Press release). Worldwide Aeros Corp. 30 August 2002.
- ^ "High Altitude Airship (HAA)". Lockheed Martin.
- ^ "Lockheed Martin, U.S. Army Demonstrate HALE-D During Abbreviated Flight" (Press release). Lockheed Martin. July 27, 2011.
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{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) - ^ "Lockheed Martin High Altitude Airship's Maiden Voyage Aborted". Lighter-Than-Air Society. July 27, 2011.
- ^ Jim Mackinnon (August 2, 2011). "Lockheed Martin's prototype airship burns". Akron Beacon Journal.
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- ^ FDC/aerofilter (October 28, 2005). "FDC/aerofilter selected by Boeing Phantom Works for the A160 Hummingbird" (Press release) – via Vertical magazine, MHM publishing.
Further reading
- R. Struzak (2004). "Mobile Telecommunications via Stratosphere" (PDF). InterComms. Entico Corporation.
- "High Altitude Airship (HAA)". GlobalSecurity.org.
- "Lockheed Wins $149.2M Contract for High Altitude Airship". Defense Industry Daily. Jan 16, 2006.
- "High Altitude Platform Systems" (PDF). 2.0. GSMA. February 2022.
Towers in the Skies