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#REDIRECT [[Genocides in history (before World War I)]] |
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{{short description|Wikimedia list article}} |
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{{Genocide}} |
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[[File:Rwandan Genocide Murambi skulls.jpg|thumb|Skulls of victims of the [[Rwandan genocide]]]] |
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[[Genocide]] is the deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, religious or national group. The term was coined in 1944 by [[Raphael Lemkin]]. It is defined in Article 2 of the [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]] (CPPCG) of 1948 as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a [[nation]]al, [[ethnicity|ethnical]]<!--"ethnical" is quoted from the document; although unusual, it is found in several dictionaries-->, [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial]] or [[Religion|religious]] group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the groups conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."<ref name=CPPCG>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/genocide.htm|title=Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide|work=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|date=12 January 1951|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051211121830/http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/genocide.htm|archive-date=11 December 2005}} Note: "ethnical", although unusual, is found in several dictionaries.</ref> |
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{{R from move}} |
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The preamble to the CPPCG states that "genocide is a crime under [[international law]], contrary to the spirit and aims of the [[United Nations]] and condemned by the civilized world" and that "at all periods of history genocide has inflicted great losses on humanity."<ref name=CPPCG/> |
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Determining what historical events constitute a ''genocide'' and which are merely criminal or inhuman behavior is not a clear-cut matter. In nearly every case where accusations of genocide have circulated, partisans of various sides have fiercely disputed the details and interpretation of the event, often to the point of depicting wildly different versions of the facts. |
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==Alternate definitions== |
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{{See also|Genocide definitions}} |
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The debate continues over what legally constitutes genocide. One definition is any conflict that the [[International Criminal Court]] has so designated. Many conflicts that have been labeled genocide in the popular press have not been so designated.<ref>{{cite web|title=Debate continues over what constitutes genocide|url=http://worldfocus.org/blog/2009/02/05/debate-continues-over-what-constitutes-genocide/3925/|work=Blogwatch|publisher=[[Worldfocus]]|access-date=17 November 2012|date=5 February 2009}}</ref> |
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M. Hassan Kakar<ref name="HassanKakar-Index">M. Hassan Kakar [http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h&brand=eschol Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982] [[University of California]] press 1995 The Regents of the University of California.</ref> argued that the definition should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator. He prefers the definition from Chalk and Jonassohn: "Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group so defined by the perpetrator."{{sfn|Chalk|Jonassohn|1990}} |
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Some critics{{who|date=February 2017}} of the international definition argued that the definition was influenced by [[Joseph Stalin]] to exclude political groups.<ref>{{Cite book|first1=Robert |last1=Gellately |first2=Ben |last2=Kiernan |title=The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, K |year=2003|isbn=978-0-521-52750-7 |page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ay76mYBLU3sC&pg=PA267 267]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Staub, Ervin |title=The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=978-0-521-42214-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=29u-vt_KgGEC&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8 8]|year=1989}}</ref> |
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According to [[R. J. Rummel]], genocide has multiple meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by a government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning is defined by CCPG. This includes actions such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children to another group. Rummel created the term [[democide]] to include assaults on political groups.{{sfn|Rummel|1998|p=[http://www.Hawaii.edu/powerkills/GENOCIDE.HTM Democide versus genocide; which is what?]}} |
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In this article, atrocities that have been characterized as genocide by some reliable source are included, whether or not this is supported by mainstream scholarship. The acts may involve mass killings, mass deportations, [[politicide]]s, democides, withholding of food and/or other necessities of life, death by deliberate exposure to invasive infectious disease agents or combinations of these. Thus examples listed may constitute genocide by the United Nations definition, or by one of the alternate interpretations. |
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==Before 1490== |
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{{See also|Genocide of indigenous peoples#Pre–1948 examples}} |
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According to Canadian scholar [[Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)|Adam Jones]], if a dominant group of people had little in common with a marginalized group of people, it is easy for the dominant group to define the other as subhuman. As a result, the marginalized group might be labeled as a threat that must be eliminated.<ref name="Jones-3.5">{{harvnb|Jones|2006|p=3}} footnote 5 cites [[Helen Fein]], ''Genocide: A Sociological Perspective'', (London: Sage, 1993), p. 26</ref> Jones continues: "The difficulty, as [[Frank Chalk]] and [[Kurt Jonassohn]] pointed out in their early study, is that such historical records as exist are ambiguous and undependable. While history today is generally written with some fealty to 'objective' facts, most previous accounts aimed rather to praise the writer's patron (normally the leader) and to emphasize the superiority of one's own gods and religious beliefs."{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=3}} |
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Chalk and Jonassohn: "Historically and anthropologically peoples have always had a name for themselves. In a great many cases, that name meant 'the people' to set the owners of that name off against all other people who were considered of lesser quality in some way. If the differences between the people and some other society were particularly large in terms of religion, language, manners, customs, and so on, then such others were seen as less than fully human: pagans, savages, or even animals."{{sfn|Chalk|Jonassohn|1990|p=28}} |
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=== Neanderthals === |
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Hypotheses which suggest that genocidal violence [[Neanderthal extinction hypotheses|may have caused the extinction]] of the [[Neanderthals]] have been offered by several authors, including [[Jared Diamond]]{{sfn|Diamond|1992}} and [[Ronald Wright]].{{sfn|Wright|2004|pp=24, 37}} However, several scholars have formed alternative theories as to why the Neanderthals died out, which means there is no clear consensus as to what caused their extinction within the scientific community.<ref>{{cite web|first=Gail |last=Glover |url=http://phys.org/news/2014-02-neanderthals-extinction-modern-humans-emerged.html |title=Neanderthals may have faced extinction long before modern humans emerged |publisher=Phys.org |date=24 February 2014 |access-date=13 February 2016}}</ref> |
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=== Ancient genocides === |
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Scholars of [[Ancient history|antiquity]] differentiate genocide from [[gendercide]], in which groups of people were conquered and the males who belonged to the conquered groups were killed but the children (particularly girls) and women were incorporated into the conquering groups. Jones notes, "Chalk and Jonassohn provide a wide-ranging selection of historical events such as the [[Assyrian Empire]]'s root-and branch depredations in the first half of the first millennium BCE, and the destruction of [[Melos]] by [[Athens]] during the [[Peloponnesian War]] (431-404 BCE), a gendercidal rampage described by [[Thucydides]] in his '[[Melian Dialogue]]'{{-"}}.{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=5}} The [[Old Testament]] documents the destruction of the [[Midian]]ites, taking place during the life of [[Moses]] in the 13th century BCE. The [[Book of Numbers]] chapter 31 recounts that an army of [[Israelites]] killed every Midianite man but captured the women and children as plunder. These were later killed at the command of Moses, with the exception of girls who were [[Virginity|virgins]]. The total number killed is not recorded but the number of surviving girls is recorded by the [[Book of Numbers]] as 32,000. |
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=== Hebrew genocide === |
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According to the [[Hebrew Bible]], [[Moses]] and [[Joshua]] annihilated the [[Canaan]]ites (Numbers 21:2-3; Deuteronomy 20:17; Joshua 6:17, 21) and [[Saul]] annihilated the [[Amalek]]ites (1 Samuel 15). These two accounts are in accord with chiefdom-level warfare as it is described by Anthropologist [[Robert Carneiro]].<ref>"Chiefdom-level warfare as exemplified in Fiji and the Cauca Valley," Anthropology of War, ed. Jonathan Haas, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990, p 190-215.</ref> The twelve Israelite tribes might have formed what anthropologists term a [[chiefdom]] and the two parallel accounts suggests hypothetical historicity of the events, aside from total absence of objective external evidence and the literary issues of reiteration of theme commonly involved in [[Authorship of the Bible|authorship of Hebrew scriptures]]. |
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=== Destruction of Carthage === |
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[[Ben Kiernan]] has labelled the [[Siege of Carthage (c. 149–146 BC)|destruction]] of [[Carthage]] at the end of the [[Third Punic War]] (149–146 BCE) "The First Genocide."{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=5}} |
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=== Asiatic Vespers === |
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In 88 BC, King [[Mithridates VI of Pontus]] ordered the murder of all Italics in Asia Minor, resulting in the deaths of about 100,000, mainly civilians. This action provoked the Romans leading to the [[First Mithridatic War]]. |
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=== Tencteri and Usipetes === |
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[[Julius Caesar]]'s campaign against the [[Tencteri]] and [[Usipetes]] have been characterized as genocidal.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XR91bs70jukC&pg=PA58|title = Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur|isbn = 978-0300100983|last1 = Kiernan|first1 = Ben|year = 2007}}</ref><ref>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/11/julius-caesar-battlefield-unearthed-southern-netherlands-dutch-archaeologists</ref> |
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=== Gallic Wars === |
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During the [[Gallic Wars]] Caesar reported that he burnt every village and building that he could find in the territory of the Eburones, drove off all the cattle, and his men and beasts consumed all the corn that the weather of the autumnal season did not destroy. He left those who had hid themselves, if there were any, with the hope that they would all die of hunger in the winter. Caesar says that he wanted to annihilate the Eburones and their name, and indeed we hear no more of the Eburones. Their country was soon occupied by a Germanic tribe with a different name, the [[Tungri]]. However, the report of Tacitus that the Tungri were the original "''Germani''" that came earliest over the Rhine, and the way this matches the description by Caesar of the Eburones and their neighbours, leads to the possibility that they survived under a new name. |
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However, Heinrichs (2008) argues that the [[genocide]] of the Eburones in 53 BC could not have happened as it is claimed by [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]].{{Sfn|Heinrichs|2008|p=208}} If the systematic destruction of infrastructures by the Roman forces was intended to prevent the local people from regaining power, physical extermination proved to be impractical. The available areas of refuge hardly accessible to the Roman legions were numerous: the low mountain range of the [[Ardennes]], the swamps and wastelands towards the [[Menapii]], the coastal islands, etc. Moreover, Caesar's second attempt to annihilate the tribe two years later demonstrates that the community survived, and even probably regenerated in such a way that further actions were apparently needed.{{Sfn|Heinrichs|2008|p=208}} According to Roymans (2004), their disappearance from the political map may have resulted from "a policy of ''[[damnatio memoriae]]'' on the part of the Roman authorities, in combination with the confiscation of Eburonean territory".{{Sfn|Roymans|2004|p=23}} A great part of their gold fell into Roman hands during repeated Roman raids on the Eburones in 53–51 BC, and was then melted down and carried off.{{Sfn|Roymans|2004|p=45}} |
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=== Bar Kokhba revolt === |
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The [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] ({{lang-he|מֶרֶד בַּר כּוֹכְבָא|links=no}}; ''Mered Bar Kokhba'') was a rebellion of the Jews of the [[Judea (Roman province)|Roman province of Judea]], led by [[Simon bar Kokhba]], against the [[Roman Empire]]. Fought circa 132–136 CE,<ref>for the year 136, see: W. Eck, ''The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View'', pp. 87–88.</ref> it was the last of three major [[Jewish–Roman wars]]. The revolt erupted as a result of religious and political tensions which existed in Judea since the end of the failed [[First Jewish–Roman War|First Revolt]] in 66–73 CE. These tensions were exacerbated by the establishment of a large Roman military presence in Judea, changes in administrative life and the economy, together with the outbreak and suppression of Jewish revolts from [[Mesopotamia]] to [[Libya]] and [[Cyrenaica]].<ref>William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, [https://archive.org/details/cambridgehis_xxxx_1984_004_8494287/page/n1083 <!-- pg=106 --> ''The Cambridge History of Judaism: The late Roman-Rabbinic period''], Cambridge University Press, 1984 pp. 106.</ref> The proximate reasons seem to be the construction of a new city, [[Aelia Capitolina]], over the ruins of [[Jerusalem]] and the erection of a temple to [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] on the [[Temple Mount]]. The [[Church Fathers]] and [[Rabbinic Judaism|rabbinic literature]] emphasize the role of [[Quintus Tineius Rufus (consul 127)|Rufus]], [[Roman governor|governor]] of Judea, in provoking the revolt.<ref name="William David Davies p. 35">William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein: ''The Cambridge History of Judaism: The late Roman-Rabbinic period'', p. 35, Cambridge University Press, 1984, {{ISBN|9780521772488}}</ref> The Bar Kokhba revolt resulted in the extensive depopulation of Judean communities, more so than during the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] of 70 CE.<ref name=Taylor>{{cite book |last= Taylor |first= J. E. |publisher= Oxford University Press |quote= Up until this date the Bar Kokhba documents indicate that towns, villages and ports where Jews lived were busy with industry and activity. Afterwards there is an eerie silence, and the archaeological record testifies to little Jewish presence until the Byzantine era, in En Gedi. This picture coheres with what we have already determined in Part I of this study, that the crucial date for what can only be described as genocide, and the devastation of Jews and Judaism within central Judea, was 135 CE and not, as usually assumed, 70 CE, despite the siege of Jerusalem and the Temple's destruction |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=XWIMFY4VnI4C&pg=PA243 |title= The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea|date= 15 November 2012 |isbn= 9780199554485 }}</ref> According to [[Cassius Dio]], 580,000 Jews perished in the war and many more died of hunger and disease. In addition, many Judean war captives were sold into slavery.<ref name="Mor, M. 2016. P471">Mor, M. ''The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132-136 CE''. Brill, 2016. P471/</ref> The Jewish communities of Judea were devastated to an extent which some scholars describe as a [[genocide]].<ref name=Taylor/><ref name="google.co.il">Totten, S. ''Teaching about genocide: issues, approaches and resources.'' p24. [http://www.google.com/books?hl=iw&lr=&id=LoQo50YPzTUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA23]</ref> However, the Jewish population remained strong in other parts of Palestine, thriving in Galilee, Golan, Bet Shean Valley and the eastern, southern and western edges of Judea.<ref name=CambridgeJudaism>David Goodblatt, 'The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel,' in William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds.) [https://archive.org/details/cambridgehis_xxxx_1984_004_8494287/page/n437 <!-- pg=406 --> ''The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period''], Cambridge University Press, 2006 pp.404-430, p.406.</ref> Roman casualties were also considered heavy – [[Legio XXII Deiotariana|XXII ''Deiotariana'']] was [[Demise of Legio XXII Deiotariana|disbanded]] after serious losses.<ref name="F. Keppie 2000 pp 228-229">L. J. F. Keppie (2000) ''Legions and veterans: Roman army papers 1971-2000'' Franz Steiner Verlag, {{ISBN|3-515-07744-8}} pp 228–229</ref><ref name="livius.org account">[https://www.livius.org/le-lh/legio/xxii_deiotariana.html livius.org account](Legio XXII Deiotariana)</ref> In addition, some historians argue that [[Legio IX Hispana]]'s disbandment in the mid-2nd century could have been a result of this war. In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or [[Ancient Israel]], Emperor Hadrian wiped the name off the map and replaced it with [[Syria Palaestina]].<ref name="H.H. Ben-Sasson, 1976, page 334">H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-674-39731-2}}, page 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."</ref><ref name="Ariel Lewin p. 33">Ariel Lewin. ''The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine''. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name - one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus - Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land." {{ISBN|0-89236-800-4}}</ref><ref name="The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered">[https://books.google.com/books?id=1TA-Fg4wBnUC&pg=PA33&dq=intentionally+suppressed+jewish+national+Aelia+Capitolina+Palaestina&sig=xxUlDy9oYikzsdYmFHP0E-lDFE8 ''The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered''] by Peter Schäfer, {{ISBN|3-16-148076-7}}</ref> |
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=== Wu Hu and Jie === |
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Ancient Chinese texts record that General [[Ran Min]] ordered the extermination of the [[Five Barbarians|Wu Hu]], especially the [[Jie people]], during the [[Wei–Jie war]] in the fourth century AD. The Jie were an ethnic group which possessed racial characteristics which included high-bridged noses and bushy beards, and as a result, they were easily identified and killed; in total, 200,000 of them were reportedly massacred.<ref>[http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%99%89%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7107 《晉書·卷一百七》] [[Jin Shu]] '''Original text''' 閔躬率趙人誅諸胡羯,無貴賤男女少長皆斬之,死者二十余萬,屍諸城外,悉為野犬豺狼所食。屯據四方者,所在承閔書誅之,于時高鼻多須至有濫死者半。</ref> |
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=== Zandaqa === |
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Zindīq (زنديق) or Zandik (𐭦𐭭𐭣𐭩𐭪) was initially used to negatively denote the followers of the [[Manichaeism|Manichaeian]] religion in the [[Sasanian Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Zandaqa In The Early Abbasid Period With Special Reference To Poetry|last=Taheri-Iraqi|first=Ahmad|location=University of Edinburgh|pages=3|quote=[...] the word zindiq/zandik was initially applied in the Sassanid Empire to the Manichaeans as a pejorative epithet [...]}}</ref> By the time of the 8th-century [[Abbasid|Abbasid Caliphate]] however, the meaning of the word zindīq and the adjectival ''zandaqa'' had broadened and could loosely denote many things: [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] Dualists as well as followers of Manichaeism, [[Agnosticism|agnostics]], and [[Atheism|atheists]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Zandaqa In The Early Abbasid Period With Special Reference To Poetry|last=Taheri-Iraqi|first=Ahmad|location=University of Edinburgh|pages=3|quote=Allthough the word zindīq/zandik was initially, in the Sassanid Empire, applied to Manichaeans as a pejorative epithet, by the time of the Islamic Epoch its usage had broadened and was loosely applied to Gnostic Dualists, agnostics, atheists, and even to free-thinkers and libertines. Eventually in the later period, even up to the present time, 'zindīq' came to be synonomous with 'irreligious'.}}</ref><ref name="Zaman1997">{{citation|last=Zaman|first=Muhammad Qasim|title=Religion and Politics Under the Early 'Abbasids: The Emergence of the Proto-Sunni Elite|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0xkpdl6UVOwC&pg=PA64|year=1997|publisher=Brill|pages=63–65|isbn=9004106782}}.</ref> However, many of those who were persecuted for being ''zandaqa'' under the Abbasids claimed to be Muslims, and when it was applied to Muslims, the accusation was that the accused secretly harbored Manichaean beliefs.<ref name="Zaman1997" /> "The proof for such an accusation was sought, if at all, in an indication of some kind of dualism, or if that individual openly flouted Islamic beliefs or practices."<ref name="Zaman1997" /> As such, certain Muslim poets of early Abbasid times could also be accused of being ''zandaqa'' as much as an actual Manichaean might be.<ref name="Zaman1997" /> |
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The charge of being a ''zandaqa'' was a serious one, and it could cost the accused his/her life.<ref name="Zaman1997" /><ref>{{citation|last=Bowker|first=John|chapter=Zindiq|title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions|year=1997|publisher=OUP}}.</ref> A history of the time states cites the "Spiller" caliph [[As-Saffah|Abu al-'Abbas]] as having said "tolerance is laudable, except in matters which are dangerous to religious belief, or matters which are dangerous to the sovereign's dignity."<ref name="Glasse" /> The third Abbasid caliph, [[Al-Mahdi]], ordered the composition of polemical works that were to be used to refute the beliefs of freethinkers and other heretics, and for years, he attempted to completely exterminate them, hunting them down and exterminating freethinkers in large numbers, putting anyone who was merely suspected of being a ''zindiq'' to death.<ref name="Glasse">{{citation|last=Glassé|first=Cyril|chapter=Zindiq|title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2013|edition=4th|page=491}}.</ref> Al-Mahdi's successors, the caliphs [[al-Hadi]] and [[Harun al-Rashid]], continued the pogroms, although they occurred with diminished intensity during the reign of the latter and were later ended by him.<ref name="Zaman1997"/><ref name= "Christine">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=aPgGBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA88|title= Medieval Heresies|author= Christine Caldwell Ames|publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]]|year= 2015|page= 88|isbn= 9781107023369}}</ref> In turn this policy influenced the [[Mihna]] policy of [[al-Ma'mun]] which targeted those Muslim religious scholars and officials who refused to accept the doctrine of the created nature of the Quran.<ref name="Zaman1997" /> |
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=== Anasazi === |
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A 2010 study suggests that a group of [[Ancestral Puebloans|Anasazi]] in the [[Southwestern United States|American Southwest]] were killed in a genocide that took place circa 800 CE.<ref name="Potter 2010">{{cite journal|last1=Potter|first1=James M.|first2=Jason P.|last2=Chuipka|title=Perimortem mutilation of human remains in an early village in the American Southwest: A case for ethnic violence|journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology| year=2010|volume=29|issue=4|pages=507–523|url=http://www.unl.edu/rhames/courses/current/readings/perimortem-mutilation-SW.pdf|access-date=18 May 2012|doi=10.1016/j.jaa.2010.08.001}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/39268873 |title=How genocide wiped out a Native American population |publisher= NBC News |date=20 September 2010 }}</ref> |
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=== Mongol Empire === |
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Quoting [[Eric Margolis (journalist)|Eric Margolis]], Jones observes that in the 13th century the [[Destruction under the Mongol Empire|Mongol armies]] under [[Genghis Khan]] were genocidal killers,{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=3, footnote 4}} who were known to eradicate whole nations.{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=4 note 12}} He ordered the extermination of the [[Tatars|Tata Mongols]], and all [[Kankalis]] males in [[Bukhara]] "taller than a wheel"<ref name="Kahn1998">{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Kahn|title=The Secret History of the Mongols: The Origin of Chinghis Khan|url=https://archive.org/details/secrethistoryofm00kahn|year=1998|publisher=Cheng & Tsui|isbn=978-0-88727-299-8}}</ref> using a technique called [[measuring against the linchpin]]. In the end, half of the Mongol tribes were exterminated by Genghis Khan.<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NQ2_byGXWFUC&q=killed+half+the+mongolian+population&pg=PA100 | title=Chinggis Qan and the Conquest of Eurasia: A Biography |chapter=Doeke Eisma | page=100| isbn=9781847289742 | last1=Eisma | first1=Doeke | year=2006 }}</ref> Rosanne Klass referred to the Mongols' rule of Afghanistan as "genocide".<ref>''The Encyclopedia of Genocide'', ABC-CLIO, 1999, p. 48, article "Afghanistan, Genocide of"</ref> |
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=== Tamerlane === |
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Similarly, the Turko-Mongol conqueror [[Tamerlane]] was known for his extreme brutality and his conquests were accompanied by [[genocidal massacre]]s.{{sfn|Totten|Bartrop|Jacobs|2008|p={{google books|id=rgGA91skoP4C|p=422}}}} William Rubinstein wrote: "In [[Assyria]] (1393–4)—Tamerlane got around—he killed all the Christians he could find, including everyone in the, then, Christian city of [[Tikrit]], thus virtually destroying [[Assyrian Church of the East]]. Impartially, however, Tamerlane also slaughtered Shi'ite Muslims, Jews and heathens."{{sfn|Rubinstein|2004|p={{google books|id=nMMAk4VwLLwC|p=28}}}} Christianity in Mesopotamia was hitherto largely confined to those [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] communities in the north who had survived the massacres.<ref>"History of the Nestorians".</ref> Tamerlane also conducted large-scale massacres of [[Georgian people|Georgian]] and [[Armenians|Armenian]] Christians, as well as of Arabs, Persians and Turks.<ref>"The Turco-Mongol Invasions". Rbedrosian.com. Retrieved 22 May 2012.</ref> |
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==1490 to 1914== |
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[[File:Shark_Island_-_Death_Camp_-_BBC.jpg|thumb|Head of a [[Shark Island Concentration Camp]] prisoner, which was used by [[German Empire]] doctors for medical experiments.]] |
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=== Africa === |
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==== Congo ==== |
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{{main|Atrocities in the Congo Free State}} |
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From 1885 to 1908, the [[Congo Free State]] in central Africa was privately controlled by [[Leopold II of Belgium]], who extracted a fortune from the land by the use of forced labour of natives. Under his regime, there were 2 to 15 million deaths among the Congolese people.<ref>{{cite book |last=Forbath |first=Peter |title=The River Congo: The Discovery, Exploration and Exploitation of the World's Most Dramatic Rivers |publisher=Harper & Row |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-06-122490-4 |page=278}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Fredric |last=Wertham |author-link=Fredric Wertham |title=A Sign For Cain: An Exploration of Human Violence |year=1968 |isbn=978-0-7091-0232-8}}{{page needed|date=November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Adam |last=Hochschild |author-link=Adam Hochschild |title=King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-74329-160-3}}{{page needed|date=November 2014}}</ref>{{sfn|Weisbord|2003|pp=35–45}} Deliberate killings, abusive punishments, and general exploitation were major causes of the deaths. As in the colonization of the Americas, European diseases, hitherto unknown in the region, also led to a considerable number of deaths. Because the main motive for the killings was financial gain, it has been debated whether the term ''genocide'' describes these atrocities well; however, [[Robert Weisbord]] wrote in the ''[[Journal of Genocide Research]]'' in 2003 that attempting to eliminate a portion of the population is enough to qualify as genocide under the UN convention.{{sfn|Weisbord|2003|pp=35–45}} Reports of the atrocities led to a major international scandal in the early 20th century, and Leopold was ultimately forced in 1908 by the Belgian government to relinquish control of the colony to the civil administration.{{sfn|Crowe|2013|p=17}}{{sfn|Vanthemsche|2012|p=41}} |
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==== Ethiopia under Menelik II (1889–1913) ==== |
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During its military conquest, centralization and incorporation of territories into [[Ethiopia]] as decreed by [[Menelik II]], his army committed [[genocidal]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bearak |first1=Max |title='A place of ghosts:' Ethiopia opens controversial palace to a divided public |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/a-place-of-ghosts-ethiopia-opens-controversial-palace-to-a-divided-public/2019/10/11/4ddd2d9c-ead5-11e9-a329-7378fbfa1b63_story.html |agency=The Washington Post}}</ref><ref name=mekuria>Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> atrocities against civilians and combatants which included [[torture]], [[Mass murder|mass killings]] and the imposition of large scale [[slavery]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name=mekuria/> Large scale atrocities were also committed against the [[Dizi people]] and the people of the [[Kingdom of Kaffa|Kaficho kingdom]].<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> Some estimates of the number of people who were killed in the atrocities that were committed during the war and the famine which coincided with it go into the millions.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&pg=PA186&dq=million+of+Oromo&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=million%20of%20Oromo&f=false African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> According to [[Alexander Bulatovich]], Menelik's Russian military aide, Menelik's armies "dreadfully annihilated more than half" of the [[Oromo people|Oromo]] (Galla) population down to 5 million people, which "took away from the Galla all possibility of thinking about any sort of uprising."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|title=samizdat.com|website=www.samizdat.com|access-date=28 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|archive-date=16 December 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Eshete Gemeda put the death toll even higher at 6 million.<ref name="ReferenceZ"/> |
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These deaths may have also been caused by the great famine of 1888 to 1892, which was the worst famine in the region's history; a third of Ethiopia's total population of 12 million was killed according to some estimates.<ref name=E1>Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> The famine was caused by [[rinderpest]], an infectious viral cattle disease which wiped out most of the national livestock, killing over 90% of the [[Arado cattle|cattle]]. The population of native cattle had no prior exposure to the disease and as a result, it was unable to fight it off.<ref name=E2>Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&pg=PA257&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiY88mLoOTNAhXC7xQKHbANCiMQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=rinderpest%20%2290%20percent%20of%20the%20cattle%20of%20Ethiopia%20perished%22%20%22no%20prior%20exposure%22%20%22unexposed%20native%20cattle%20populations%22%20%22unable%20to%20fight%22%20%22not%20more%20than%207%20or%208%20percent%22&f=false Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> Despite the violence of the conquest some historians stress the fact that before the centralization process was completed, Ethiopia was devastated by numerous wars, the most recent of which was fought in the 16th century. In the intervening period, military tactics had not changed much. In the 16th century, the Portuguese Bermudes documented depopulation and widespread atrocities against civilians and combatants (including torture, mass killings and the imposition of large scale slavery) during several successive Aba Gedas' [[Gadaa]] conquests of territories which were located north of the Genale river ([[Bale Province, Ethiopia|Bali]], [[Amhara people|Amhara]], [[Gafat language|Gafat]], [[Damot]], [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]]).<ref name=D3-2>Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&pg=PA284&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjIktPg34TOAhWBnhQKHfCCDaYQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=neighbours%20%22only%20to%20destroy%20and%20depopulate%22%20%22slay%20all%20the%20men%22%20%22kill%20the%20old%20women%22%20%20%22keep%20the%20young%22%20%22use%20and%20service%22%20conquer&f=false The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name=D3-3>J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA229&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjIktPg34TOAhWBnhQKHfCCDaYQ6AEIIjAB#v=onepage&q=neighbours%20%22only%20to%20destroy%20and%20depopulate%22%20%22slay%20all%20the%20men%22%20%22kill%20the%20old%20women%22%20%20%22keep%20the%20young%22%20%22use%20and%20service%22%20conquer&f=false The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1543 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> Warfare in the region essentially involved acquiring cattle and slaves, winning additional territories, gaining control of trade routes and carrying out ritual requirements or securing trophies to prove masculinity.<ref name=D7>Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&pg=PA43&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjI1Yiex83NAhXGXBQKHSm5A1EQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22importance%20of%20warfare%20as%20a%20form%20of%20intertribal%20relations%20in%20Greater%20Ethiopia%22%20cattle%20slaves%20territory%20%22trade%20routes%22%20%22ritual%20requirements%22%20%22virtually%20all%22%20%22hostile%20contact%22%20trophies%20masculinity&f=false Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name=D11>W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&pg=PA107&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjJnMXWptLMAhUCVSwKHZgqApoQ6AEIGjAA#v=onepage&q=%22Kaffa%20the%20state%20was%20actively%20involved%20in%20the%20harvesting%20of%20captives.%20As%20Kaffa%20expanded%20after%201800%20skirmishes%20with%20other%20Omotic%20states%20like%20Kullo%20and%20Walamo%22&f=false The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&pg=PA56&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples,+by+taking+captives+in+war,+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjK3v_GqrLMAhUBkRQKHe7wDw0Q6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22Afar%20made%20slaves%20of%20Amhara%22%20%22slaves%20were%20acquired%20by%20conquering%20other%20peoples%2C%20by%20taking%20captives%20in%20war%2C%20or%20in%20slave-raiding%20expeditions%22&f=false Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name=D15>Harold G. Marcus [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=jX7-0ROBfyIC&pg=PA55&dq=%22Slaves+were+often+provided+by+Oromo+and+Sidamo+rulers+who+raided+their+neighbors+or+who+enslaved+their+own+people+for+even+minor+crimes%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjXs-3UuMvMAhVFVRQKHRxtBDwQ6AEIGjAA#v=onepage&q=%22Slaves%20were%20often%20provided%20by%20Oromo%20and%20Sidamo%20rulers%20who%20raided%20their%20neighbors%20or%20who%20enslaved%20their%20own%20people%20for%20even%20minor%20crimes%22&f=false A History of Ethiopia]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Wars were fought between people who might be members of the same linguistic group, religion and culture, or between unrelated tribes. Centralization greatly reduced these continuous wars; minimizing the loss of lives, raids, destruction and [[Slavery in Ethiopia|slavery]] that had previously been the norm.<ref name="MenelikA12" /><ref name="MenelikA151">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&pg=PA156&dq=%22indeed,+a+large+part+of+the+increased+slave+trade%22+%22nineteenth+century+%22+%22Galla+captives+being+sold+by+other+Galla%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjQ9JmZ4tLOAhWB2RoKHW3HANYQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22indeed%2C%20a%20large%20part%20of%20the%20increased%20slave%20trade%22%20%22nineteenth%20century%20%22%20%22Galla%20captives%20being%20sold%20by%20other%20Galla%22&f=false Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 156 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA14">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&pg=PA136&dq=%22Galla%27s+most+esteemed+adversaries+in+war+have+in+fact+been+other+Gallinya-speaking+communities%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwir_IzXqbLMAhXHshQKHe4sDsYQ6AEIHTAA#v=onepage&q=%22Galla's%20most%20esteemed%20adversaries%20in%20war%20have%20in%20fact%20been%20other%20Gallinya-speaking%20communities%22&f=false Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 136 Google Books</ref><ref name=D5>Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&pg=PA85&dq=%22welcomed+as+a+way+to+put+an+end+to+their+own+troublesome+intertribal+fighting.%22+%22Galla-Amhara%22+%22+terribly+destructive+of+human+life,+economic+resources,+and+artistic+treasures.+%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwib4ofvws3NAhVHWRoKHbyUBTUQ6AEIHjAA#v=onepage&q=%22welcomed%20as%20a%20way%20to%20put%20an%20end%20to%20their%20own%20troublesome%20intertribal%20fighting.%22%20%22Galla-Amhara%22%20%22%20terribly%20destructive%20of%20human%20life%2C%20economic%20resources%2C%20and%20artistic%20treasures.%20%22&f=false Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 85 Google Books</ref><ref name=D6>Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&pg=PA26&dq=%22greatly+reduced+the+intertribal+warfare+and+brigandage+that+had+prevailed+in+the+conquered+areas,+and+paved+the+way+for+bringing+an+end+to+the+slave+trade+in+Ethiopia.%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj3_6PFw83NAhWEVhQKHScAD7sQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22greatly%20reduced%20the%20intertribal%20warfare%20and%20brigandage%20that%20had%20prevailed%20in%20the%20conquered%20areas%2C%20and%20paved%20the%20way%20for%20bringing%20an%20end%20to%20the%20slave%20trade%20in%20Ethiopia.%22&f=false Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 26 Google Books</ref> |
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==== French conquest of Algeria ==== |
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{{main|Pacification of Algeria}} |
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[[File:Prise de la Zaatcha (1849).png|thumb|[[Pacification of Algeria]]]] |
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[[Ben Kiernan]] wrote in his book ''[[Blood and Soil (book)|Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur]]'' on the French conquest of [[Algeria]], that within three decades of the French conquest of Algeria in 1830, war, famine and disease{{citation needed|date=September 2016}} had reduced the original population from 3 million by a figure ranging from 500,000 to 1,000,000.<ref>[[Ben Kiernan]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=R5p7cRyK748C&pg=PA364 ''Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur''], Yasle University Press, 2007, pp. 364–65.</ref> |
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<blockquote>By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830. A long shadow of genocidal hatred persisted, provoking the French author to protest in 1882 that in Algeria, "we hear it repeated every day that we must expel the native and if necessary destroy him." As a French statistical journal urged five years later, "the system of extermination must give way to a policy of penetration."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=XR91bs70jukC&pg=PA374 Kiernan 2007 p. 374].</ref></blockquote> |
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In response to [[France]]'s recognition of [[Armenian Genocide]], [[Turkey]] accused [[France]] of committing [[genocide]] against 15% of [[Algeria]]'s population.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chrisafis |first1=Angelique |title=Turkey accuses France of genocide in Algeria |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/23/turkey-accuses-france-genocide-algeria |work=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Turkey accuses France of genocide in colonial Algeria |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-16314373 |work=BBC News}}</ref> |
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==== German South West Africa ==== |
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{{Main|Herero and Namaqua genocide}} |
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The [[Herero people|Herero]] and [[Nama people|Namaqua]] peoples of present-day [[Namibia]] endured a genocidal persecution between 1904 and 1907 while their homeland was under colonial rule as [[German South West Africa]].{{sfn|Cooper|2006|pp=113–26}} Large percentages of their populations perished in a brutal [[scorched earth]] campaign led by German General [[Lothar von Trotha]]. An estimated 10,000 Namaqua were killed,{{sfn|Friedrichsmeyer|Lennox|Zantop|1998|p=110}} with estimates for the Herero ranging from 60,000 and 100,000.{{sfn|Sarkin-Hughes|2008|p=5}} |
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A copy of Trotha's Extermination Order survives in the [[Botswana National Archives]]. The order states "every Herero, with or without a gun, with or without cattle, will be shot. I will no longer accept women or children, I will drive them back to their people [to die in the desert] or let them be shot at."{{sfn|Olusoga|Erichsen|2010|pp=150–51}} Olusoga and Erichsen write: "It is an almost unique document: an explicit, written declaration of intent to commit genocide."{{sfn|Olusoga|Erichsen|2010|p=151}} |
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==== Zulu Kingdom ==== |
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{{Main|Mfecane}} |
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Between 1810 and 1828, the [[Zulu kingdom]] under [[Shaka Zulu]] laid waste to large parts of present-day [[South Africa]] and [[Zimbabwe]]. Zulu armies often aimed not only at defeating enemies but at their total destruction. Those exterminated included prisoners of war, women, children and even dogs.{{sfn|Jones|2006|pp=7–8}} (Controversial) estimates for the death toll range from 1 million to 2 million.<ref>Eugene Walter, Terror and Resistance (1969)</ref><ref>Major Charters, Royal Artillery, "Notices of the Cape And Southern Africa, Since The Appointment, As Governor, Of Major-Gen. Sir Geo. Napier". ''United Service Journal and Naval and Military Magazine'', London: W. Clowes and Son, 1839, Part III, p. 24</ref><ref>Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th edition</ref><ref name="Hanson2007">{{cite book|first=Victor|last=Hanson|title=Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C|date= 2007|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-42518-8 |page=313}}</ref> |
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=== Americas === |
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{{See also|Genocide of indigenous peoples#Indigenous peoples of the Americas (pre-1948)}} |
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[[File:Woundedknee1891.jpg|thumb|[[Mass grave]] burial of Native Americans at the [[Wounded Knee Massacre]] in 1890]] |
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According to historian [[David Stannard]], over the course of more than four centuries "from the 1490s into the 1890s, Europeans and white Americans engaged in an unbroken string of genocide campaigns against the native peoples of the Americas." Stannard writes that the native population had been reduced savagely by invasions of European plague and violence and that by around 1900 only one-third of one percent of America's population–250,000 out of 76,000,000 people–were natives. He calls it "the worst human holocaust the world had ever witnessed", and it leveled off because "there was, at last, almost no one left to kill."{{sfn|Stannard|1993|pp=146–47}} On 20 January 1513, [[Vasco Núñez de Balboa]] wrote to the king advocating genocide against the native population in the [[Caribbean]]. Balboa slew hundreds in Caribbean villages. The crown later withdrew support and Balboa was executed in 1519.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kiernan|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XR91bs70jukC&pg=PA81 81]}}</ref> [[Raphael Lemkin]] (coiner of the term [[genocide]]) considered colonial abuses of the [[Amerindian|Native]] population of the Americas to constitute cultural and even outright [[genocide]] including the abuses of the [[Encomienda]] system. He described slavery as "cultural genocide par excellence" noting "it is the most effective and thorough method of destroying culture, of desocializing human beings." He considers colonists guilty due to failing to halt the abuses of the system despite royal orders. He also notes the [[genocidal rape|sexual abuse]] of Spanish colonizers of Native women as acts of "biological [[genocide]]".<ref>Raphael Lemkin's History of Genocide and Colonialism<br> |
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Holocaust Memorial Museum https://www.ushmm.org/confront-genocide/speakers-and-events/all-speakers-and-events/raphael-lemkin-history-of-genocide-and-colonialism{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="mcdonnellmoses">{{cite journal |last1=Mcdonnell |first1=Michael A. |last2=Moses |first2=A. Dirk |title=Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=December 2005 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=501–529 |doi=10.1080/14623520500349951|s2cid=72663247 }}</ref> In this vein, Stannard described the [[encomienda]] as a genocidal system which "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths."<ref>{{cite book|last=Stannard|first=David E.|date=1993|title=American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World|url=https://archive.org/details/americanholocaus00stan/page/139|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/americanholocaus00stan/page/139 139]|isbn=978-0195085570|author-link=David Stannard}}</ref> Anthropologist [[Jason Hickel]] asserts that during Spanish rule of [[Hispaniola]], many [[Arawak]]s died from lethal forced labor in the mines, in which a third of workers died every six months and that within two years of the arrival of [[Christopher Columbus]] half the population of Hispaniola had been killed.<ref name="Hickel">{{cite book |last= Hickel|first=Jason|date=2018 |title=The Divide: A Brief Guide to Global Inequality and its Solutions|publisher=Windmill Books|page=70 |isbn=978-1786090034}}</ref> According to anthropologist [[Russell Thornton]], for the American Indians "the arrival of the Europeans marked the beginning of a long holocaust, although it came not in ovens, as it did for the Jews. The fires that consumed North America Indians were the fevers brought on by newly encountered diseases, the flashes of settlers' and soldiers' guns, the ravages of 'firewater,' the flames of villages and fields burned by the scorched-earth policy of vengeful Euro-Americans."<ref>''American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492''; [[Russell Thornton]]; University of Oklahoma Press; 1987; pp. xv–xviii</ref> Some authors, including [[Holocaust studies|Holocaust scholar]] [[David Cesarani]], have argued that United States government policies in furtherance of its so-called [[Manifest Destiny]] constituted genocide.<ref name="CesaraniKavanaugh2004">{{cite book|first1=David|last1=Cesarani|first2=Sarah|last2=Kavanaugh|title=Holocaust: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aXhlbTvCHLoC|date=2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-27510-1 |page=381}}</ref> |
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Some historians disagree that genocide, defined as a crime of intent, should be used to describe the colonization experience. [[Stafford Poole]], a research historian, wrote: "There are other terms to describe what happened in the Western Hemisphere, but genocide is not one of them. It is a good propaganda term in an age where slogans and shouting have replaced reflection and learning, but to use it in this context is to cheapen both the word itself and the appalling experiences of the [[Jews]] and [[Armenian Genocide|Armenians]], to mention but two of the major victims of this century."<ref>Stafford Poole, quoted in {{cite book|first=Robert|last=Royal|title=1492 and all that: political manipulations of history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9ROcHPzoncC|year=1992|publisher=Ethics and Public Policy Center|isbn=978-0-89633-174-7 |page=63}}</ref> Noble David Cook, writing about the Black Legend and the conquest of the Americas wrote, "There were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have died in the first century after Old and New World contact". He instead estimates that the death toll was caused by diseases like [[smallpox]],<ref name="Cook1998">{{cite book|author=Noble David Cook|title=Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dvjNyZTFrS4C|date=13 February 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-62730-6 |pages=9–14}}</ref> which according to some estimates had an 80–90% fatality rate in Native American populations.<ref>Arthur C. Aufderheide, Conrado Rodríguez-Martín, Odin Langsjoen (1998). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC&pg=PA205#v=onepage The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology]''. Cambridge University Press. p. 205. {{ISBN|0-521-55203-6}}</ref> Political scientist [[Guenter Lewy]] says "even if up to 90 percent of the reduction in Indian population was the result of disease, that leaves a sizable death toll caused by mistreatment and violence."<ref>{{cite web|first=Guenter |last=Lewy |url=http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/7302 |title= Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide? |publisher=History News Network |year=2007 |access-date=28 August 2013}}</ref> Native American Studies professor [[Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz]] opposes these viewpoints and says, "Proponents of the default position emphasize attrition by disease despite other causes equally deadly, if not more so. In doing so they refuse to accept that the colonization of America was genocidal by plan, not simply the tragic fate of populations lacking immunity to disease. In the case of the Jewish Holocaust, no one denies that more Jews died of starvation, overwork, and disease under Nazi incarceration than died in gas ovens, yet the acts of creating and maintaining the conditions that led to those deaths clearly constitute genocide."<ref>''[[An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States]]''; Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz; ''[[Beacon Press]]''; 2014; pp. 41–42</ref> Historian [[Andrés Reséndez]] argues that even though the Spanish were aware of the spread of smallpox, they made no mention of it until 1519, a quarter century after Columbus arrived in Hispaniola.<ref name=otherslaver>{{cite web |last1=Trever |first1=David |title=The new book 'The Other Slavery' will make you rethink American history |url=https://www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-ca-jc-native-american-slavery-20160505-snap-story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620020336/https://www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-ca-jc-native-american-slavery-20160505-snap-story.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-06-20 |website=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> Instead he contends that enslavement in gold and silver mines was the primary reason why the Native American population of Hispaniola dropped so significantly.<ref>{{cite book |last= Reséndez|first=Andrés|date=2016 |title=The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA17|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]|page=17 |isbn=978-0547640983|author-link=Andrés Reséndez}}</ref><ref name=otherslaver/> and that even though disease was a factor, the native population would have rebounded the same way Europeans did following the [[Black Death]] if it were not for the constant enslavement they were subject to.<ref name=otherslaver/> He further contends that [[Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas|enslavement of Native Americans]] was in fact the primary cause of their depopulation in Spanish territories;<ref name=otherslaver/> that the majority of Indians enslaved were women and children compared to the enslavement of Africans which mostly targeted adult males and in turn they were sold at a 50% to 60% higher price,<ref name=esla>{{cite web |last1=Lindley |first1=Robin |title=The Other Slavery: An Interview with Historian Andrés Reséndez |url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/164562 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620023022/https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/164562 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-06-20 |website=History News Network}}</ref> and that 2,462,000 to 4,985,000 Amerindians where enslaved between Columbus's arrival and 1900.<ref>Reséndez estimates between 2.462 and 4.985 million indigenous people were enslaved. {{Cite book|title=The other slavery: The uncovered story of Indian enslavement in America|last=Reséndez|first=Andrés|date=2017|isbn=978-0-544-94710-8|pages=324}}</ref><ref name=esla/> |
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Several works on the subject were released around the year 1992 to coincide with the 500th anniversary of Columbus' voyage. In 2003, [[Venezuela]]n President [[Hugo Chávez]] urged [[Latin Americans]] not to celebrate the [[Columbus Day]] holiday. Chavez blamed Columbus for spearheading "the biggest invasion and genocide ever seen in the history of humanity."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3184668.stm |title=Columbus 'sparked a genocide' |access-date=21 October 2006 |date=12 October 2003 |work=BBC News}}</ref> |
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The colonization of the Americas killed so many people it contributed to [[climate change (general concept)|climate change]] and [[Little Ice Age|global cooling]], according to scientists from [[University College London]].<ref>{{cite news |last= Kent|first=Lauren|date=1 February 2019|title=European colonizers killed so many Native Americans that it changed the global climate, researchers say|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/02/01/world/european-colonization-climate-change-trnd/index.html|work=[[CNN]] |access-date=1 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.12.004 |title=Earth system impacts of the European arrival and Great Dying in the Americas after 1492 |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=207 |pages=13–36 |year=2019 |last1=Koch |first1=Alexander |last2=Brierley |first2=Chris |last3=Maslin |first3=Mark M. |last4=Lewis |first4=Simon L. |bibcode=2019QSRv..207...13K |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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==== Argentina ==== |
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{{Main|Conquest of the Desert}} |
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The [[Conquest of the Desert]] was a military campaign mainly directed by General [[Julio Argentino Roca]] in the 1870s, which established Argentine dominance over [[Patagonia]], then inhabited by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas#Argentina|indigenous peoples]], killing more than 1,300.<ref>Carlos A. Floria and César A. García Belsunce, 1971. ''Historia de los Argentinos'' I and II; {{ISBN|84-599-5081-6}}. {{Page needed|date=December 2008}}</ref> |
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Contemporary sources indicate that it was a deliberate genocide by the [[Argentina|Argentine]] government.<ref>{{cite web|last=Andermann|first=Jens|url=http://www.bbk.ac.uk/ibamuseum/texts/Andermann02.htm|title=Argentine Literature and the 'Conquest of the Desert', 1872–1896: Violence|publisher=[[Birkbeck, University of London]]|access-date=25 November 2016|quote="It is this sudden acceleration, this abrupt change from the discourse of 'defensive warfare' and 'merciful civilization' to that of 'offensive warfare' and of genocide, which is perhaps the most distinctive mark of the literature of the Argentine frontier."}}</ref> Others perceived the campaign as intending to suppress only groups of aboriginals that refused to submit to the government and carried out attacks on European settlements.<ref name="Rock2002">{{cite book|first==David|last=Rock|title=State Building and Political Movements in Argentina, 1860–1916|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n8WhgJc3eZMC|year=2002|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-4466-9|pages=93–94}}</ref><ref>[http://qollasuyu.indymedia.org/es/2005/05/1952.shtml "Civilización o genocidio, un debate que nunca se cierra"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050516212139/http://qollasuyu.indymedia.org/es/2005/05/1952.shtml |date=16 May 2005 }} by Cacho Fernández – Qollasuyu Tawaintisuyu Indymedia {{in lang|es}}</ref> |
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==== Canada ==== |
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{{see also|Ethnocide}} |
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The [[Canadian Indian residential school system|Indian (First Nation) residential schools]] were primarily active following the passage of the [[Indian Act]] in 1876, until 1996, and were designed to remove children from the influence of their families and culture, and [[Cultural assimilation|assimilate]] them into the dominant Canadian culture. Over the course of the system's existence, about 30% of native children, or roughly 150,000, were placed in residential schools nationally; at least 6,000 of these students died while in attendance.<ref name="med.uottawa.ca">{{cite web|title=Residential School History: A Legacy of Shame|url=http://www.med.uottawa.ca/sim/data/Images/Residential_Schools.pdf|publisher=Wabano Centre for Aboriginal Health|access-date=28 June 2016|date=2000|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151203062432/http://www.med.uottawa.ca/sim/data/Images/Residential_Schools.pdf|archive-date=3 December 2015|df=dmy}}</ref><ref name="Tasker">{{cite news|last1=Tasker|first1=John Paul|title=Residential schools findings point to 'cultural genocide,' commission chair says|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/residential-schools-findings-point-to-cultural-genocide-commission-chair-says-1.3093580|access-date=1 July 2016|publisher=CBC|date=29 May 2015}}</ref> The system has been described as [[cultural genocide]]: "killing the Indian in the child."<ref name="IndigenousFoundations">{{cite web|title=The Residential School System|url=http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/government-policy/the-residential-school-system.html|website=Indigenous Foundations|publisher=UBC First Nations and Indigenous Studies|access-date=28 June 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160627221843/http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/government-policy/the-residential-school-system.html|archive-date=27 June 2016|df=dmy}}</ref><ref name="Luxen">{{cite news|last1=Luxen|first1=Micah|title=Survivors of Canada's 'cultural genocide' still healing|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-33001425|access-date=28 June 2016|publisher=BBC|date=24 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Brethren">{{Cite web|url=http://www.canadianbic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/First-Steps-Final-Reg-PDF.pdf|title=First Steps With First Nations|date=April 2012|publisher=Brethren in Christ Canada|access-date=28 June 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817000352/http://www.canadianbic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/First-Steps-Final-Reg-PDF.pdf|archive-date=17 August 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Executive Summary of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission found that physical genocide, biological genocide, and cultural genocide all occurred: physical, through abuse; biological, through the disruption of reproductive capacity; and cultural, through forced assimilation.<ref name="TRCExec">{{cite web|title=Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future – Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada|url=http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Exec_Summary_2015_05_31_web_o.pdf|publisher=The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada|access-date=28 June 2016|date=31 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921023350/http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Exec_Summary_2015_05_31_web_o.pdf|archive-date=21 September 2018|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com/opinion/letters_to_the_editors/2015/06/06/more-voices-on-truth-and-reconciliation-commission.html |title=More voices on Truth and Reconciliation Commission |date=6 June 2015 |publisher=Toronto Star |access-date=4 February 2016}}</ref> Part of this process during the 1960s through the 1980s, dubbed the [[Sixties Scoop]], was investigated and the child seizures deemed genocidal by Judge Edwin Kimelman, who wrote, "You took a child from his or her specific culture and you placed him into a foreign culture without any [counselling] assistance to the family which had the child. There is something dramatically and basically wrong with that."<ref>''Genocide''; Szumski, Bonnie; [[Greenhaven Press]]; 2001; pp. 155–58</ref> |
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==== Haiti ==== |
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[[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]], the first ruler of an independent [[Haiti]], ordered the killing of the white population of French creoles on Haiti, which culminated in the [[1804 Haiti massacre]]. According to Philippe Girard, "when the genocide was over, Haiti's white population was virtually non-existent."{{sfn|Robins|Jones|2009}} |
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==== Mexico ==== |
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===== Yucatán ===== |
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[[File:Acuna-Soto_EID-v8n4p360_Fig1.png|thumb|Graph of population decline in central Mexico caused by successive epidemics]] |
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The [[Caste War of Yucatán]] (approx. 1847–1901) against the population of European descent, known locally as ''[[Yucateco]]s'', who held political and economic control of the region. Adam Jones wrote: |
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"Genocidal atrocities on both sides cost up to 200,000 killed."{{sfn|Robins|Jones|2009|p=50}} |
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===== Apaches ===== |
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In 1835, Don Ignacio Zuniga, commander of the presidios of northern [[Sonora]], asserted that since 1820, the [[Apache]]s had killed at least 5,000 Mexican settlers in retaliation for land encroachments in ''[[Apacheria|Apachería]]''. The State of Sonora then offered a bounty on Apache [[Scalping#Americas|scalps]] in 1835. Beginning in 1837, the State of [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]] also offered a bounty of 100 pesos per warrior, 50 pesos per woman and 25 pesos per child.<ref>James L. Haley (1981). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RAfJwmMeq5IC Apaches: A History and Culture Portrait]''. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 50–51. {{ISBN|0806129786}}</ref> |
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===== Yaquis ===== |
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{{Main|Yaqui Wars|Yaqui Uprising|Battle of Mazocoba}} |
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The Mexican government's response to the various uprisings of the [[Yaqui]] tribe have been likened to [[genocide]] particularly under [[Porfirio Diaz]].<ref>Yaquis: The Story of a People's War and a Genocide in Mexico Paco Ignacio Taboo II</ref> By the end of Diaz's rule at least 20,000 Yaquis were killed in Sonora and their population was reduced from 30,000 to 7,000.<ref> |
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http://www.vanguardia.com.mx/pacoignaciotaiboiinarragenocidiodeyaquisenmexico-185265 |
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</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.tukari.udg.mx/noticia/paco-ignacio-taibo-ii-documenta-el-brutal-genocidio-yaqui-en-nuestro-pais | title=Paco Ignacio Taibo II, documenta el brutal genocidio yaqui en nuestro país | Tukari}}</ref> Mexican president [[Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador]] said he'd be willing to offer apologies for the abuses in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mexico president wants no beef with Spain, hints at other apology requests |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-spain-president/mexico-president-wants-no-beef-with-spain-hints-at-other-apology-requests-idUSKCN1R726N |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502020130/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-spain-president/mexico-president-wants-no-beef-with-spain-hints-at-other-apology-requests-idUSKCN1R726N |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-05-02 |website=Reuters}}</ref> |
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==== Newfoundland ==== |
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{{Main|Beothuk|Twillingate}} |
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The Beothuks attempted to avoid contact with Europeans in Newfoundland by moving from their traditional settlements.<ref>{Margaret Conrad, History of the Canadian Peoples fifth edition pp. 256–57}</ref> The Beothuks were put into a position where they were forced from their traditional land and lifestyle into ecosystems that could not support them and that led to undernourishment and eventually starvation.<ref>[http://www.heritage.nf.ca/aboriginal/beo_extinction.html]{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> While some scholars{{who|date=January 2021}} believe that the Beothuk primarily died out due to the elements noted above, another hypothesis is that Europeans conducted a sustained campaign of genocide against them.<ref>{{cite book| first = RP | last = Knowles | title = Modern Drama: Defining the Field | publisher = [[University of Toronto Press]] | year = 2003 | page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=dqTz89_fFjgC&pg=PA169#v=onepage&q&f=false 169] | isbn = 978-0-8020-8621-1 | author2 = Tomplins J | author3 = Worthen WB | url = https://archive.org/details/moderndramadefin0000unse/page/ }}</ref> They were officially declared "extinct" after the death of [[Shanawdithit]] in 1829 in the capital, St. John's, where she had been taken. |
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==== Peru ==== |
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"The indigenous rebellions of [[Túpac Amaru II]] and [[Túpac Katari]] against the Spanish between 1780 and 1782, cost over 100,000 mestizos, native peruvians and Spanish settlers' lives in [[Peru]] and Upper Peru (present-day [[Bolivia]])."{{sfn|Robins|Jones|2009|p=1}} |
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==== United States ==== |
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{{further|Genocide of indigenous peoples#United States colonization and westward expansion}} |
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Native American Studies professor [[Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz]] states that US history, as well as inherited Indigenous trauma, cannot be understood without dealing with the genocide that the United States committed against Indigenous peoples. From the colonial period through the founding of the United States and continuing in the twentieth century, this has entailed torture, terror, sexual abuse, massacres, systematic military occupations, removals of Indigenous peoples from their ancestral territories, forced removal of Native American children to military-like boarding schools, allotment, and a policy of termination.<ref>[http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/162804 Yes, Native Americans Were the Victims of Genocide]; ''[[History News Network]]''; Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz; 12 May 2016</ref> |
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In 1763, British militia's [[William Trent]] and Simeon Ecuyer gave [[smallpox]]-exposed blankets to Native American emissaries as gifts at [[Siege of Fort Pitt]], "to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians", in one of the most famously documented cases of [[germ warfare]]. While it is uncertain how successful such attempts were against the target population,<ref name="Dixon2005">{{cite book|first=David|last=Dixon|title=Never Come to Peace Again: Pontiac's Uprising and the Fate of the British Empire in North America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UeaN0-Ra64oC&pg=PA152|access-date=16 February 2016|year=2005|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-3656-1|pages=152–155}}<br>{{cite book|first=Michael N.|last=McConnell|title=A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724–1774|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lpEBUfQjoIAC&pg=PA195|access-date=16 February 2016|year=1997|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-8238-4|pages=195–96}}<br>{{cite book|author=Gregory Evans Dowd|title=War under Heaven: Pontiac, the Indian Nations, and the British Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8IKAAAACAAJ&pg=PA190|access-date=16 February 2016|year=2004|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-7892-3|page=190}}<br> |
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For historians who describe this specific attempt at intentional infection as successful, see: |
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<br>{{cite book|first=William R.|last=Nester|title="Haughty Conquerors": Amherst and the Great Indian Uprising of 1763|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LYJdG9ecqEYC&pg=PA112|access-date=16 February 2016|year=2000|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-96770-3|page=112}}<br>{{cite book|first=Francis|last=Jennings|title=Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VsBPyRfdHEAC&pg=PA447|access-date=16 February 2016|year=1990|publisher=Norton|isbn=978-0-393-30640-8|pages=447–448}}</ref> historians have noted that, "history records numerous instances of the French, the Spanish, the British, and later on the American, using smallpox as an ignoble means to an end. For smallpox was more feared by the Indian than the bullet: he could be exterminated and subjugated more easily and quickly by the death-bringing virus than by the weapons of the white man."<ref name="Stearn">''The Effect of Smallpox on the Destiny of the Amerindian''; Esther Wagner Stearn, Allen Edwin Stearn; University of Minnesota; 1945; pp. 13–20, 73–94, 97</ref> The leader of this battle, British High Commander [[Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst|Jeffery Amherst]] authorized the intentional use of disease as a biological weapon against indigenous populations, saying, "You will Do well to try to Innoculate the Indians by means of Blanketts, as well as to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execrable Race", and instructing his subordinates, "I need only Add, I Wish to Hear of no prisoners should any of the villains be met with arms."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Henderson | first1 = Donald A. | display-authors = etal | year = 1999 | title = Smallpox as a Biological Weapon. Medical and Public Health Management | url = http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=190320 | journal = [[JAMA (journal)|JAMA]] | volume = 281 | issue = 22| pages = 2127–37 | doi = 10.1001/jama.281.22.2127 | pmid = 10367824 }}</ref><ref>d'Errico, Peter. [http://www.umass.edu/legal/derrico/amherst/lord_jeff.html Jeffrey Amherst and Smallpox Blankets].</ref> |
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[[File:MankatoMN38.JPG|thumb|President [[Abraham Lincoln]] ordered the mass execution of 38 Native Americans in Minnesota for [[Dakota War of 1862|revolt against the government]] in 1862]] |
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During the [[American Indian Wars]], the [[United States Army]] carried out a number of massacres and forced relocations of Indigenous peoples, acts that some scholars say constitute genocide. The [[Sand Creek Massacre]], which caused outrage in its own time, has been called genocide. General [[John Chivington]] led a 700-man force of [[Colorado Territory]] [[Militia (United States)|militia]] in a massacre of 70–163 peaceful [[Cheyenne]] and [[Arapaho]], about two-thirds of whom were women, children, and infants. Chivington and his men took [[Scalping|scalps]] and other body parts as trophies, including human [[fetus]]es and male and female [[genitalia]].<ref name="United States Congress. (1867)">United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, 1865 (testimonies and report)</ref> In defense of his actions Chivington stated, |
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{{quote|Damn any man who sympathizes with Indians! ... I have come to kill Indians, and believe it is right and honorable to use any means under God's heaven to kill Indians. ... Kill and scalp all, big and little; nits make lice.| Col. John Milton Chivington, U.S. Army<ref name=Dee_book>{{cite book| last = Brown| first = Dee| title = Bury my heart at Wounded Knee| orig-year = 1970| publisher = Macmillan| chapter = War Comes to the Cheyenne| pages = 86–87| isbn = 978-0-8050-6634-0| year = 2001}}</ref>}} |
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A study by Gregory Michno concluded that of 21,586 tabulated casualties in a selected 672 battles and skirmishes, military personnel and settlers accounted for 6,596 (31%), while indigenous casualties totaled about 14,990 (69%) for the period 1850–90. Michno's study almost exclusively uses Army estimates. His follow-up book "Forgotten Battles and Skirmishes" covers over 300 additional fights not included in these statistics.<ref>{{Cite book|first = Gregory| last = Michno| title = Encyclopedia of Indian wars: western battles and skirmishes, 1850–1890| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MmNtF5n-VuEC&pg=PA353| publisher = Mountain Press Publishing| year = 2003 |
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| page = 353| isbn = 978-0-87842-468-9}}</ref> |
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According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), between 1789 and 1846, "The Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the given... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate..."<ref name="Thornton1987">{{cite book|first=Russell|last=Thornton|title=American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492|url=https://archive.org/details/americanindianho00thor_0|url-access=registration|year=1987|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-2220-5}}</ref> In the same 1894 report, the Census Bureau dismissed assertions that millions of Native Americans once inhabited what is now the United States, insisting instead that North America in 1492 was an almost empty continent, and "guesstimating" that aboriginal populations "could not have exceeded much over 500,000", whereas modern scholarship now estimates more than 10 million.<ref name="BXScience">{{cite web|last=Lord|first=Lewis|url=http://www.bxscience.edu/ourpages/auto/2009/4/5/34767803/Pre-Columbian%20population.pdf|title=Pre-Columbian Population: How Many People Were Here Before Columbus?|work=U.S. News & World Report: The Bronx High School of Science|date=August 1997|pages=68–70|access-date=4 June 2017}}</ref><ref name="States1994">{{cite book|author=United States Census Bureau|title=Report on Indians taxed and Indians not taxed in the United States (except Alaska)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWkUAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA28|access-date=5 February 2017|year=1994|publisher=Norman Ross Publishing|isbn=978-0-88354-462-4|page=28}}</ref> |
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Chalk and Jonassohn argued that the deportation of the [[Cherokee]] tribe along the [[Trail of Tears]] would almost certainly be considered an act of genocide today.<ref name="Grenke2005">{{cite book|first=Arthur|last=Grenke|title=God, Greed, and Genocide: The Holocaust Through the Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iBaGO8Ue2NMC&pg=PA161|date=1 January 2005|publisher=New Academia Publishing, LLC|isbn=978-0-9767042-0-1|page=161}}</ref> The [[Indian Removal Act]] of 1830 led to the exodus. About 17,000 Cherokees—along with approximately 2,000 Cherokee-owned black slaves—were removed from their homes.<ref>Carter (III), Samuel (1976). ''Cherokee sunset: A nation betrayed: a narrative of travail and triumph, persecution and exile''. New York: Doubleday, p. 232.</ref> The number of people who died as a result of the Trail of Tears has been variously estimated. American doctor and missionary Elizur Butler, who made the journey with one party, estimated 4,000 deaths.<ref>{{cite book|author=Francis Paul Prucha|title=The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC&pg=PA241|access-date=16 February 2016|year=1995|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-8734-1|pages=241 note 58}}<br>{{cite book|first=John|last=Ehle|title=Trials of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kNuRA8riMeoC&pg=PA390|access-date=16 February 2016|year=1989|publisher=Anchor Books|isbn=978-0-385-23954-7|pages=390–92}}<br>{{cite book|first=William L.|last=Anderson|title=Cherokee Removal: Before and After|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ow_Vjtta0YsC&pg=PA75|access-date=16 February 2016|year=1992|publisher=University of Georgia Press|isbn=978-0-8203-1482-2|pages=75–93}}</ref> Historians David Stannard{{sfn|Stannard|1993|p=124}} and Barbara Mann{{sfn|Mann|2009}} have noted that the army deliberately routed the march of the Cherokee to pass through areas of known cholera epidemic, such as Vicksburg. Stannard estimates that during the forced removal from their homelands, following the [[Indian Removal Act]] signed into law by President [[Andrew Jackson]] in 1830, 8000 Cherokee died, about half the total population.{{sfn|Stannard|1993|p=124}} |
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Archaeologist and anthropologist Ann F. Ramenofsky writes, "''Variola Major'' can be transmitted through contaminated articles such as clothing or blankets. In the nineteenth century, the U. S. Army sent contaminated blankets to Native Americans, especially Plains groups, to control the Indian problem."<ref>''Vectors of Death: The Archaeology of European Contact''; University of New Mexico Press; 1987; pp. 147–48</ref> While specific responsibility for the 1836-40 smallpox epidemic remains in question, scholars have asserted that the Great Plains epidemic was "started among the tribes of the upper Missouri River by failure to quarantine steam boats on the river",<ref name="Stearn"/> and Captain Pratt of the ''St. Peter'' "was guilty of contributing to the deaths of thousands of innocent people. The law calls his offense criminal negligence. Yet in light of all the deaths, the almost complete annihilation of the Mandans, and the terrible suffering the region endured, the label criminal negligence is benign, hardly befitting an action that had such horrendous consequences."<ref name="Rotting">''Rotting Face: Smallpox and the American Indian''; R. G. Robertson; Caxton Press; 2001 pp. 80–83, 298–312</ref> Leading genocide expert [[Dirk Moses]] attributes "the genocide of many Native American tribes" including the Mandans, to governmental assimilationist policies that coexisted with officially or unofficially sanctioned efforts "to eradicate, diminish, or forcibly evict the 'savages{{'"}}.<ref>''Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History''; Berghahn Series; Volume 12 of Studies on war and genocide; [[A. Dirk Moses]]; [[Berghahn Books]], 2008; pp. 443–45</ref> When [[smallpox]] swept the northern plains of the US in 1837, Secretary of War [[Lewis Cass]] ordered that the [[Mandan]] (along with the [[Arikara]], the [[Cree]], and the [[Blackfoot Confederacy|Blackfeet]]) not be given smallpox vaccinations, which had been provided to other tribes in other areas.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kotar|first1=S.L.|last2=Gessler|first2=J.E.|title=Smallpox: A History|date=2013|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0786493272|page=111}}<!--|access-date=12 May 2015--></ref><ref>{{cite journal |jstor=40041462 |last1=Washburn|first1=Kevin K.|title=American Indians, Crime, and the Law|journal=Michigan Law Review|date=February 2006|volume=104|issue=4|pages=709–77}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/jcl/vol5/iss2/8/ |last1=Valencia-Weber|first1=Gloria|title=The Supreme Court's Indian Law Decisions: Deviations from Constitutional Principles and the Crafting of Judicial Smallpox Blankets|journal=University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law|date=January 2003|volume=5|pages=405, 408–09|access-date=5 February 2017}}</ref> |
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The U.S. colonization of California started in earnest in 1849, and it resulted in a large number of state-subsidized massacres of Native Americans by colonists in the territory, causing several ethnic groups to be entirely wiped out. In one such series of conflicts, the so-called [[Mendocino War]] and the subsequent [[Round Valley War]], the entirety of the [[Yuki people]] were brought to the brink of extinction, from a previous population of some 3,500 people to fewer than 100. According to Russell Thornton, estimates of the pre-Columbian population of California were at least 310,000, and perhaps as high as 705,000. By 1849, due to Spanish and Mexican colonization and epidemics this number had decreased to 100,000. But from 1849 and up until 1890 the Indigenous population of California had fallen below 20,000, primarily because of the killings.{{sfn|Thornton|1987|pp=107–09}} In ''An American Genocide, The United States and the California Catastrophe, 1846–1873'', Historian Benjamin Madley recorded the number of killings of California Indians that occurred between 1846 and 1873. He found evidence that during this period, at least 9,400 to 16,000 California Indians were killed by non-Indians. Most of these killings occurred in more than 370 massacres (defined as the "intentional killing of five or more disarmed combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants, including women, children, and prisoners, whether in the context of a battle or otherwise").<ref>[[#refMadley2016|Madley 2016]], pp. 11, 351</ref> 10,000 Indians were also kidnapped and sold as slaves.<ref>Pritzker, Barry. 2000, A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford University Press, p. 114</ref> In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June, 2019, California governor [[Gavin Newsom]] apologized for the genocide. Newsom said, "That’s what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that’s the way it needs to be described in the history books."<ref>{{cite news | last =Cowan | first =Jill | title ='It's Called Genocide': Newsom Apologizes to the State's Native Americans | newspaper =[[The New York Times]] | date =19 June 2019 | url =https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/19/us/newsom-native-american-apology.html| access-date =20 June 2019 }}</ref> |
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Indeed, noted children's book author of "[[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz|The Wizard of Oz]]", [[L. Frank Baum]], contemporaneously and freely admitted to the definition of genocide—annihilation of a people—as being deliberately intended, in the aftermath of the [[Wounded Knee Massacre]] and slaughter of the [[Lakota people|Lakota]] and their leader [[Sitting Bull]]: |
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<blockquote>"The Whites, by law of conquest, by justice of civilization, are masters of the American continent, and the best safety of the frontier settlements will be secured by the total annihilation of the few remaining Indians. Why not annihilation? Their glory has fled, their spirit broken, their manhood effaced; better that they die than live the miserable wretches that they are."<ref>{{cite news | last =Sutherland | first =JJ | title =L. Frank Baum Advocated Extermination of Native Americans | newspaper =[[National Public Radio]] | date =October 27, 2010 | url =https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2010/10/27/130862391/l-frank-baum-advocated-extermination-of-native-americans | access-date =June 23, 2020 }}</ref></blockquote> |
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=== Asia === |
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==== Afghanistan ==== |
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{{main|Hazaras|Persecution of Hazara people}} |
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[[Abdur Rahman Khan|Abdur Rahman]]'s subjugation of the Hazara ethnic group in the late nineteenth century due to their fierce rebellion against the Afghan king gave birth to an intense feeling of hatred between the [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] and the [[Hazaras|Hazara]] that would last for years to come. Massive forced displacements, especially in [[Oruzgan]] and [[Daychopan District|Daychopan]], continued as lands were confiscated and populations were expelled or fled. Some 35,000 families fled to northern Afghanistan, [[Mashhad]] (Iran) and [[Quetta]] (Pakistan). It is estimated that more than [[List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll#Genocide, ethnic cleansing, and mass ethno/religious persecution|60%]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = تاریخ باستانی هزاره ها|last = دلجو|first = عباس|publisher = انتشارات امیری|year = 2014|isbn = 978-9936801509|location = کابل}}</ref> of the Hazara were either massacred or displaced during Abdur Rahman's campaign against them. Hazara farmers were often forced to give up their property to Pashtuns<ref name=":0" /> and as a result many Hazara families had to move seasonally to the [[List of cities in Afghanistan|major cities in Afghanistan]], Iran, or Pakistan in order to find jobs and sources of income. Quetta in Pakistan is home to the third largest settlements of Hazara outside Afghanistan. |
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==== British rule of India and elsewhere ==== |
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[[Mike Davis (scholar)|Mike Davis]] argues in his book [[Late Victorian Holocausts]] that quote; "Millions died, not outside the 'modern world system', but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures. They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism; indeed many were murdered...by the theological application of the sacred principles of Smith, Bentham, and Mill."<ref>Davis, M (2001) Late Victorian Holocausts: El Nino Famines and the Making of the Third World London Verso p. 9</ref> |
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[[File:WWHooperFamine1876-78GroupOfEmaciaedMenandOneWoman.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Famine stricken people during the famine of 1876–78 in Bengal]] |
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Davis characterizes the Indian famines under the [[British Raj]], such as the [[Great Bengal famine of 1770#Responsibility of the East India Company|Great Bengal famine of 1770]] or the [[Great Famine of 1876-78]] which took over 15 million lives as "colonial genocide." Some scholars, including [[Niall Ferguson]], have disputed this judgement, while others, including [[Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)|Adam Jones]], have affirmed it.<ref>Jones, Adam Chapter 2: State and Empire. Genocides a Comprehensive Introduction Routledge {{ISBN|978-1317533856}}</ref><ref>Powell, Christopher Barbaric Civilization: A Critical Sociology of Genocide McGill-Queen's Press. pp. 238–45 {{ISBN|978-0773585560}}</ref> ''60 million'' people died of famine and its complications from 1765-1946.<ref>[[Timeline of major famines in India during British rule]]</ref> |
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==== Dutch East Indies ==== |
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The [[1740 Batavia massacre]] ({{lang-nl|Chinezenmoord}}; {{lang-fr|Meurtre des Chinois}}, literally the "Murder of the Chinese"; {{lang-id|Geger Pacinan}}, or the "Chinatown Tumult") was a [[Pogrom#Pogroms against other ethnic targets|pogrom]] in which [[Dutch East Indies]] soldiers and native collaborators killed [[Chinese Indonesians|ethnic Chinese]] residents of the port city of [[History of Jakarta#Dutch East India Company (17th – 18th century)|Batavia]] (present-day [[Jakarta]]) in the Dutch East Indies. The violence in the city lasted from 9 October until 22 October 1740, with minor skirmishes continuing outside the city walls into late November. Historians have estimated that at least 10,000 ethnic Chinese were massacred; just 600 to 3,000 are believed to have survived. |
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==== Dzungar genocide ==== |
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{{Main|Dzungar genocide}} |
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The [[Dzungar people|Dzungar]] (or known as Zunghar), [[Oirats|Oirat Mongols]] who lived in an area that stretched from the west end of the [[Great Wall of China]] to present-day eastern [[Kazakhstan]] and from present-day northern [[Kyrgyzstan]] to southern [[Siberia]] (most of which is located in present-day [[Xinjiang]]), were the last [[nomadic empire]] to threaten China, which they did from the early 17th century through the middle of the 18th century.<ref>Chapters 3–7 of {{Harvnb|Perdue|2005}} describe the rise and fall of the Zunghar state and its relations with other Mongol tribes, the [[Qing dynasty]], and the [[Russian empire]].</ref> After a series of inconclusive military conflicts that started in the 1680s, the Dzungars were subjugated by the [[Manchu]]-led [[Qing dynasty]] (1644–1911) in the late 1750s. According to Qing scholar [[Wei Yuan]], 40 percent of the 600,000 Zunghar people were killed by [[smallpox]], 20 percent fled to Russia or sought refuge among the [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] tribes and 30 percent were killed by the Qing army of Manchu [[Eight Banners|Bannermen]] and [[Khalkha Mongols]].<ref>[[Wei Yuan]], 聖武記 ''Military history of the Qing Dynasty'', vol.4. "計數十萬戶中,先痘死者十之四,繼竄入俄羅斯哈薩克者十之二,卒殲於大兵者十之三。"</ref>{{sfn|Perdue|2005|p=285}} |
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Historian Michael Edmund Clarke has argued that the Qing campaign in 1757–58 "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people".{{sfn|Clarke|2004|p=37}} Historian [[Peter Perdue]] has attributed the decimation of the Dzungars to a "deliberate use of massacre" and has described it as an "ethnic genocide".{{sfn|Perdue|2005|pp=283–85}} Mark Levene, a historian of genocide,<ref name="Dr. Mark Levene">[https://web.archive.org/web/20081216135041/http://www.soton.ac.uk/history/profiles/levene1.html Dr. Mark Levene], [[Southampton University]], see "Areas where I can offer Postgraduate Supervision". Retrieved 9 February 2009.</ref> has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence".{{sfn|Levene|2008|p=188}} |
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==== Japanese colonization of Hokkaido ==== |
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{{see also|Shakushain's Revolt|Menashi-Kunashir Rebellion}} |
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The [[Ainu people|Ainu]] are an indigenous people in Japan ([[Hokkaidō]]).<ref>{{cite news|first=Philippa|last=Fogarty|title=Recognition at last for Japan's Ainu|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7437244.stm|work=BBC News|date=6 June 2008|access-date=16 February 2016}}</ref> In a 2009 news story, ''Japan Today'' reported, "Many Ainu were forced to work, essentially as slaves, for [[Yamato people|Wajin]] (ethnic Japanese), resulting in the breakup of families and the introduction of [[smallpox]], [[measles]], [[cholera]] and [[tuberculosis]] into their communities. In 1869, after the [[Battle of Hakodate]] during the [[Boshin War]], the new [[Meiji government]] renamed the [[Republic of Ezo]] Hokkaido, whose boundaries were formed by former members of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]], and together with lands where the Ainu lived, they were unilaterally incorporated into Japan. It banned the Ainu language, took Ainu lands away, and prohibited the Ainu from engaging in salmon fishing and deer hunting."<ref>{{cite web|first=Andy|last=Sharp|url=http://www.japantoday.com/category/lifestyle/view/tokyo%E2%80%99s-thriving-ainu-community-keeps-traditional-culture-alive|title=Tokyo's thriving Ainu community keeps traditional culture alive|publisher=[[Japan Today]]|date=1 March 2009|access-date=16 February 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20131104102335/http://www.japantoday.com/category/lifestyle/view/tokyo%E2%80%99s-thriving-ainu-community-keeps-traditional-culture-alive|archive-date=4 November 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Roy Thomas wrote: "Ill treatment of native peoples is common to all colonial powers, and, at its worst, leads to genocide. Japan's native people, the Ainu, have, however, been the object of a particularly cruel hoax, because the Japanese have refused to accept them officially as a separate minority people."<ref>{{cite book|first=Roy|last=Thomas|title=Japan: The Blighted Blossom|url=https://archive.org/details/japanblightedblo0000thom|url-access=registration|access-date=16 February 2016|year=1989|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-125-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/japanblightedblo0000thom/page/227 227]}}</ref> In 2004, the small [[Ainu in Russia|Ainu community living in Russia]] wrote a letter to Vladimir Putin, urging him to recognize Japanese behavior against the Ainu people as genocide, which Putin declined to do.<ref>{{cite web|first=Vladimir|last=Yampolski|url=http://kamtime.ru/old/archive/08_12_2004/13.shtml|script-title=ru:Трагедия Айнов – Трагедия Российского дальнего востока|trans-title=The tragedy of the Ainu – The tragedy of the Russian Far East|language=ru|publisher=kamtime.ru|date=8 December 2004|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref> |
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==== Ottoman Empire ==== |
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{{anchor|late Ottoman genocides}} |
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{{Main|Armenian Genocide|Greek Genocide|Assyrian Genocide}} |
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{{Further|Hamidian massacres}} |
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[[File:Armenian children massacred(ALT).jpg|thumbnail|Child victims of a massacre awaiting burial in an Armenian cemetery in Erzurum, 1895]] |
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===== Bulgaria ===== |
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During the [[April Uprising]] in Bulgaria against Ottoman rule, over 15,000 non-combatant [[Bulgarians|Bulgarian]] civilians were massacred by the Ottoman army between 1876 and 1878, with the worst single incident being the [[Batak massacre]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GRpAAAAMAAJ&q=batak|title=Bulgaria|first=R. J.|last=Crampton|date=2007|publisher=OUP Oxford|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0198205142}}</ref><ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Bulgaria/History |display=Bulgaria: History |volume=4}}</ref><ref>Genocide and gross human rights violations: in comparative perspective, Kurt Jonassohn, 1999, p. 210</ref> |
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===== Armenians, Assyrians, Greeks ===== |
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[[File:Armenia22hamidian.jpg|thumb|The [[Hamidian massacres]] were massacres of [[Armenians in the Ottoman Empire]] during the mid-1890s, with estimates of the dead ranging from 80,000 to 300,000.]] |
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The [[Massacres of Badr Khan]] were conducted by [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] forces against the [[Assyrian Christian]] population of the Ottoman Empire between 1843 and 1847, resulting in the slaughter of more than 10,000 indigenous Assyrian civilians of the [[Hakkari]] region, with many thousands more being sold into slavery.<ref>Aboona, H (2008), Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: intercommunal relations on the periphery of the Ottoman Empire, Cambria Press, {{ISBN|978-1-60497-583-3}}.</ref><ref>Gaunt & Beṯ-Şawoce 2006, p. 32</ref> |
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Between 1894 and 1896 a series of ethno-religiously motivated Anti-Christian [[pogrom]]s which are known as the [[Hamidian massacres]] were conducted against the ancient [[Armenians|Armenian]] and [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] [[Christians|Christian]] populations by the forces of the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>Adalian, Rouben Paul (2010), Historical Dictionary of Armenia (2nd ed.), Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, p. 154.</ref> The massacres mainly took place in what is today south eastern Turkey, north eastern Syria and northern Iraq. The death toll is estimated to have been as high as 325,000 people,<ref>[[Taner Akçam|Akçam, Taner]] (2006) [[A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility]] p. 42, [[Metropolitan Books]], New York {{ISBN|978-0-8050-7932-6}}</ref><ref>Angold, Michael (2006), O’Mahony, Anthony, ed., Cambridge History of Christianity, 5. Eastern Christianity, Cambridge University Press, p. 512, {{ISBN|978-0-521-81113-2}}.</ref> with a further 546,000 Armenians and Assyrians made destitute by forced deportations of survivors from cities, and the destruction or theft of almost 2500 of their farmsteads towns and villages. Hundreds of churches and monasteries were also destroyed or forcibly converted into mosques.<ref>Cleveland, William L. (2000). A History of the Modern Middle East (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview. p. 119. {{ISBN|0-8133-3489-6}}.</ref> |
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The [[Adana massacre]] occurred in the [[Adana Vilayet]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in April 1909. A massacre of [[Armenians|Armenian]] and [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] [[Christians]] in the city of [[Adana]] and its surrounds amidst the [[Ottoman countercoup of 1909]] led to a series of anti-Christian [[pogrom]]s throughout the province.<ref>Raymond H. Kévorkian, "The Cilician Massacres, April 1909" in ''Armenian Cilicia'', eds. [[Richard G. Hovannisian]] and Simon Payaslian. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces, 7. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2008, pp. 339-69.</ref> Reports estimated that the Adana Province massacres resulted in the deaths of as many as 30,000 Armenians and 1,500 Assyrians.<ref>{{cite book|last=Adalian|first=Rouben Paul|editor1-last=Totten|editor1-first=Samuel|editor2-last=Parsons|editor2-first=William S.|title=Century of Genocide|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XYp-z5aP4MC&pg=PA132|access-date=28 August 2013|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415871914|pages=117–56|chapter=The Armenian Genocide}}</ref><ref name="Adalian2010">{{cite book|last=Adalian|first=Rouben Paul|title=Historical Dictionary of Armenia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QS-vSjHObOYC&pg=PA70|access-date=28 August 2013|year=2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0810874503|pages=70–71|chapter=Adana Massacre}}</ref><ref>David Gaunt, [http://www.seyfocenter.com/index.php?sid=2&aID=36 "The Assyrian Genocide of 1915"], ''Assyrian Genocide Research Center'', 2009</ref> |
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From 1913 to 1923, the [[Greek genocide|Greek]], [[Assyrian genocide|Assyrian]], and [[Armenian genocide]]s took place in the Ottoman Empire. Some historians consider these genocides to be a single event and they refer to them as the ''[[late Ottoman genocides]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Roger W.|date=2015-03-11|title=Introduction: The Ottoman Genocides of Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/576278|journal=Genocide Studies International|volume=9|issue=1|pages=1–9|issn=2291-1847|doi=10.3138/gsi.9.1.01|s2cid=154145301}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Late Ottoman genocides : the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies|date=2009|publisher=Routledge|others=Schaller, Dominik J., Zimmerer, Jürgen.|isbn=978-0415480123|location=London|oclc=263294453}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Genocide in the Ottoman Empire : Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks, 1913–1923|others=Shirinian, George|isbn=978-1785334337|edition= First |location=New York|oclc=957139268|last1 = Shirinian|first1 = George N.|date = 2017}}</ref> |
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==== Philippines ==== |
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{{Main|Philippines#History|History of the Philippines}} |
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===== Spanish colonial era ===== |
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{{Main|History of the Philippines (1565–1898)}} |
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Belinda A. Aquino describes Spanish colonial rule of the Philippines as one of the "most cruel colonial regimes in [[world history]]", characterized by the systematic destruction of native communities and their institutions, while the natives were brutalized by being forced to work on the colonial government's projects for colonial officials. The Spaniards imposed an alien religion, [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]], on the population while they destroyed the native people's [[indigenous Philippine folk religions|sacred indigenous religions]] and [[Indigenous Philippine shrines and sacred grounds|shrines]]. Despite all of these inhumane atrocities, the Spanish continued to view the natives of the Philippines as "savages" and "pagans who had to be civilized". The outright killing of natives was common, while [[genocide]] became a tool of conquest.<ref>Aquino, B. A., & Alegado, D. T. (1993). The Age of Discovery: Impact on Philippine Culture and Society Second Edition. Hawaii Correctional Industries.</ref> |
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The conclusions of Linda A. Newson's research suggest that demographic decline occurred in the Philippines during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, primarily as a result of destructive epidemics which were introduced on the islands during the establishment of the Spanish colonial regime. It was previously assumed that the natives of the Philippines were immune to the diseases which decimated the populations of the [[New World]], but Newson, using the data collected from historical demographic documents, argues that intermittent contact and low population density prevented the spread of such diseases before the arrival of the Spaniards, thus making them lethal to vulnerable populations. Yet despite the previous lack of exposure, diseases which were introduced to the Philippines were not seen as having an impact which was as great as the impact which they had on the [[New World]]. Newson also argues that the same factors which kept the diseases at bay before the Spanish conquest also helped curtail the spread of the infections during the early years of the Spanish colonial period. Newson also concludes that, for the indigenous population of the Philippines, "the demographic decline which occurred during the seventeenth century was the outcome of a complex interaction of factors which included the [[Eighty Years' War|Hispano-Dutch War]], the restructuring of Filipino communities, and periodic famines, epidemics and Moro raids".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Warwick |title=Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines |journal=Asian Studies Review |date=1 December 2013 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=603–604 |doi=10.1080/10357823.2013.855120 |s2cid=146929132 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10357823.2013.855120 |issn=1035-7823}}</ref> |
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===== American and Japanese eras ===== |
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{{Main|History of the Philippines (1898–1946)|Philippine–American War|Japanese occupation of the Philippines}} |
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Many communities which existed in the Philippines, notably those communities which existed on the islands of Samar and Sulu, were massacred by the Americans during their bid to expand colonial rule. In one account, all natives aged ten and below were the only ones who were spared in a genocide.<ref name=smith>[[#Miller1982|Miller]] p. 220; [https://www.pbs.org/crucible/Transcript.txt PBS documentary "Crucible of Empire"]; Ten days after President McKinley's death, the residents of Balangiga, a tiny village 400 miles southeast of Manila, attacked the local U.S. garrison. While U.S. soldiers ate breakfast, the church bells rang a signal. Filipinos brandishing machetes emerged from their hiding places. Forty-eight Americans, two-thirds of the garrison, were butchered, in what is called the [[Balangiga massacre]]. On the orders of General Jacob H. Smith, U.S. troops retaliated against the entire island (600 square miles) of Samar where Balangiga is located. The exchange is known because of two courts-martial: one of Waller, who was later court-martialed for ordering or allowing the execution of a dozen Filipino bearers, and the other of Gen. Jacob H. Smith, who was actually court-martialed for giving that order. The jury is out as to what extent that particular order was carried out, because Littleton Waller actually countermanded it to his= own men and said "Captain David Porter, I've had instructions to kill everyone over ten years old. But we are not making war on women =and children, only on men capable of bearing arms. Keep that in mind no matter what other orders you receive." Undoubtedly, some men did commit atrocities regardless of Waller's commands.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Benjamin R. Beede |title= The War of 1898 and U.S. Interventions, 1898T1934: An Encyclopedia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=cf-AAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 |date=21 August 2013 |publisher= Routledge |isbn= 978-1-136-74691-8 |page=74 |quote= By the end of the operation, the estimated 600 Muslims in Bud Daju were wiped out.}}</ref><ref>Chem, A. (2016). The Filipino Genocide. Historical Perspective: Santa Clara University Undergraduate Journal of History, Series II.</ref> |
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=== Russian Empire === |
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==== Siberia ==== |
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{{Further|Genocide of indigenous peoples#Tsardom of Russia's conquest of Siberia}} |
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==== Circassians ==== |
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{{Main|Circassian genocide}} |
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{{more information|Russo-Circassian War}} |
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The [[Russian Empire|Russian Tsarist Empire]] waged war against [[Circassia]] in the Northwest Caucasus for more than one hundred years, trying to replace Circassia's hold along the [[Black Sea]] coast. After a century of insurgency and war and failure to end the conflict, the Tsar ordered the expulsion of most of the Muslim population of the [[North Caucasus]]. Many [[Circassians]], Western historians, [[Turkish people|Turks]] and [[Chechens]] claimed that the events of the 1860s constituted one of the first modern genocides, in which a whole population was eliminated in order to satisfy the desires (in this case economic) of a powerful country.{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} |
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[[Antero Leitzinger]] flagged the affair the 19th century's largest genocide.<ref>{{cite web|first=Antero|last=Leitzinger|author-link=Antero Leitzinger|url=http://www.globalpolitician.com/default.asp?2243-circassia|title=The Circassian Genocide|publisher=Global Politician|date=14 December 2004|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109084500/http://www.globalpolitician.com/default.asp?2243-circassia|archive-date=9 November 2013 }}</ref> Some estimates cite that approximately 1–1.5 million Circassians were killed and most of the Muslim population was deported. Ossete Muslims and Kabardins generally did not leave. The modern Circassians and Abazins are descended from those who managed to escape the onslaught and another 1.5 million Circassians and others later returned. This effectively annihilated (or deported) 90% of the nation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS104971+22-May-2009+PRN20090522|title=145th Anniversary of the Circassian Genocide and the Sochi Olympics Issue|work=Reuters|date=22 May 2009|access-date=28 November 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702174523/https://www.reuters.com/article/2009/05/22/idUS104971%2B22-May-2009%2BPRN20090522|archive-date=2 July 2012|df=dmy}}</ref> Tsarist documents recorded more than 400,000 Circassians killed, 497,000 forced to flee and only 80,000 were left in their native area.{{sfn|Goble|2005}} Circassians were viewed as tools by the Ottoman government, and settled in restive areas whose populations had nationalist yearnings—Armenia, the Arab regions and the Balkans. Many more Circassians were killed by the policies of the Balkan states, primarily [[Serbia]] and [[Bulgaria]], which became independent at that time.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}} Still more Circassians were forcefully assimilated by nationalist Muslim states (Turkey, Syria, Iraq, etc.) who looked upon non-Turk/Arab ethnicity as a foreign presence and a threat. |
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In May 1994, the then [[Russian President]] [[Boris Yeltsin]] admitted that [[Resistance movement|resistance]] to the [[tsarist]] forces was legitimate, but he did not recognize "the guilt of the tsarist government for the genocide".{{sfn|Goble|2005}} On 5 July 2005, the Circassian Congress, an organisation that unites representatives of the various Circassian peoples in the Russian Federation, called on Moscow to acknowledge and apologize for the genocide.<ref>{{in lang|ru}} [http://circassiangenocide.org/ Circassian Genocide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325234223/http://circassiangenocide.org/ |date=25 March 2010 }}. The Circassian Congress. 2008</ref> |
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==== Kyrgyz ==== |
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{{Main|Urkun}} |
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In 1916 in the territory which is currently named [[Urkun]], [[Kyrgyzstan]] launched an uprising against Tsarist Russia. A public commission in [[Kyrgyzstan]] called the crackdown of 1916 in which 100,000 to 270,000 Kyrgyzstanis were killed in a [[genocide]], though [[Russia]] rejected this characterization.<ref>{{cite news|title=Commission Calls 1916 Tsarist Mass Killings Of Kyrgyz Genocide Print Share|url=http://www.rferl.org/content/kyrgyzstan-1916-russia-mass-killings-genocide/27926414.html|agency=Radio Free Europe}}</ref> [[Russia]]n sources put the death toll at 3,000.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Pushkareva|first=Irina|url=http://www.krugosvet.ru/articles/124/1012486/print.htm|script-title=ru:Штюрмер, Борис Владимирович|trans-title=Stürmer, Boris Vladimirovich|language=ru|encyclopedia=[[Krugosvet]]|date=1984|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111155448/http://www.krugosvet.ru/articles/124/1012486/print.htm|archive-date=11 November 2007}}</ref> |
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=== Europe === |
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==== Antiziganism (Attempted extirpations of Romani/Gypsies) ==== |
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{{main|Antiziganism}} |
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There have been several attempts to extirpate [[Romani people|Romani]] ([[Gypsies]]) throughout the [[history of Europe]]: |
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In 1545, the [[Diet of Augsburg]] declared that "whosoever kills a Gypsy (Romani), will be guilty of no murder".<ref>David Crowe (2004): A History of the Gypsies of Eastern Europe and Russia (Palgrave Macmillan) {{ISBN|0-312-08691-1}} p.XI p.34</ref> The subsequent massive killing spree which took place across the empire later prompted the government to step in to "forbid the drowning of Romani women and children".<ref>David Crowe (2004): A History of the Gypsies of Eastern Europe and Russia (Palgrave Macmillan) {{ISBN|0-312-08691-1}} p.XI p.35</ref> |
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In England, the [[Egyptians Act 1530]] banned Romani from entering the country and it also required those Romani who were already living in the country to leave it within 16 days. Failure to do so could result in the confiscation of their property, their imprisonment and deportation. The act was amended with the [[Egyptians Act 1530#Egyptians Act 1554|Egyptians Act 1554]], which directed that they abandon their "naughty, idle and ungodly life and company" and adopt a settled lifestyle. For those Romani who failed to adhere to a sedentary existence, the [[Privy council]] interpreted the act in a way that permitted the execution of non-complying Romani "as a warning to others".<ref>{{cite book|last= Mayall|first=David|title=English gypsies and state policies|publisher=Univ of Hertfordshire Press|year=1995|series=f Interface collection Volume 7 of New Saga Library|volume=7|pages=21, 24|isbn= 978-0-900458-64-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVh8mB-7n7wC&pg=PA21|access-date=28 February 2010}}</ref> |
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In 1710, [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph I]], Holy Roman Emperor, issued an edict against the Romani, ordering "that all adult males were to be hanged without trial, whereas women and young males were to be flogged and banished forever."<ref name=crowe>David Crowe (2004): A History of the Gypsies of Eastern Europe and Russia (Palgrave Macmillan) {{ISBN|0-312-08691-1}} p.XI p.36-37</ref> Additionally, in the [[kingdom of Bohemia]], the right ears of Romani men were to be cut off; in the [[March of Moravia]], their left ears were to be cut off. In other parts of Austria, they would be branded on the back with a [[branding iron]], representing the [[gallows]]. These mutilations enabled the authorities to identify the individuals as Romani on their second arrest.<ref name=crowe/> The edict encouraged local officials to hunt down Romani in their areas by levying a fine of 100 [[Reichsthaler]] on those who failed to do so.<ref name=crowe/> Anyone who helped Romani was to be punished by doing [[forced labor]] for half a year.<ref name=crowe/> The result was mass killings of Romani across the Holy Roman empire.<ref name=crowe/> In 1721, [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]] amended the decree to include the execution of adult female Romani, while children were "to be put in hospitals for education".<ref name=crowe/> |
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In 1774, [[Maria Theresa]] of [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austria]] issued an edict which forbade marriages between Romani. When a Romani woman married a non-Romani man, she had to produce proof of "industrious household service and familiarity with [[Catholic]] tenets", a male Rom "had to prove his ability to support a wife and children", and "Gypsy children over the age of five were to be taken away and brought up in non-Romani families."<ref>David Crowe (2004): A History of the Gypsies of Eastern Europe and Russia (Palgrave Macmillan) {{ISBN|0-312-08691-1}} p.XI p.75</ref> |
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==== France ==== |
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==== 13th-century extermination of the Cathars ==== |
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{{Main| Albigensian Crusade}} |
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The Albigensian Crusade or the Cathar Crusade (1209–1229) was a 20-year military campaign initiated by [[Pope Innocent III]] in order to eliminate [[Catharism]] in [[Languedoc]], in southern France. The Crusade was primarily prosecuted by the French crown and it promptly took on a political flavour, resulting not only in a significant reduction in the number of practising Cathars, but also in a realignment of the [[County of Toulouse]] in Languedoc, bringing it into the sphere of the French crown and diminishing the distinct regional culture and high level of influence of the [[Count of Barcelona|Counts of Barcelona]]. |
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[[File:Albigensian Crusade 01.jpg|thumb|[[Pope Innocent III]] excommunicating the [[Albigensians]] (left). Massacre against the Albigensians by the crusaders (right).]] |
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[[Raphael Lemkin]], who in the 20th century coined the word "[[genocide]]",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=3b7255121c&query=genocide%20convention |title=Lemkin, Raphael |publisher=UN Refugee Agency|access-date=30 July 2017}}</ref> referred to the Albigensian Crusade as "one of the most conclusive cases of genocide in religious history".{{sfn|Lemkin|2012|p=71}} [[Mark Gregory Pegg]] writes that "The Albigensian Crusade ushered genocide into the West by linking divine salvation to [[mass murder]], by making slaughter as loving an act as His sacrifice on the cross."{{sfn|Pegg|2008|p=188}} [[Robert E. Lerner]] argues that Pegg's classification of the Albigensian Crusade as a genocide is inappropriate, on the grounds that it "was proclaimed against unbelievers ... not against a 'genus' or people; those who joined the crusade had no intention of annihilating the population of southern France ... If Pegg wishes to connect the Albigensian Crusade to modern ethnic slaughter, well—words fail me (as they do him)."{{sfn|Lerner|2010|p=92}} [[Laurence Marvin]] is not as dismissive as Lerner regarding Pegg's contention that the Albigensian Crusade was a genocide; he does however take issue with Pegg's argument that the Albigensian Crusade formed an important historical precedent for later genocides including the [[Holocaust]].{{sfn|Marvin|2009b|pp=801–02}} |
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Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Solveig Björnson describe the Albigensian Crusade as "the first ideological genocide".{{sfn|Jonassohn|Björnson|1998|p=50}} Kurt Jonassohn and Frank Chalk (who together founded the [[Montreal Institute for Genocide and Human Rights Studies]]) include a detailed case study of the Albigensian Crusade in their genocide studies textbook ''The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies'', authored by Strayer and [[Malise Ruthven]].{{sfn|Chalk|Jonassohn|1990|pp=114–38}} |
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==== Huguenot persecutions ==== |
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{{Main|St. Bartholomew's Day massacre}} |
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==== Vendee ==== |
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{{Main|War in the Vendée}} |
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[[File:Fusillades de Nantes.jpg|thumb|Mass shootings at Nantes, 1793]] |
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In 1986, Reynald Secher argued that the actions of the French republican government during the revolt in the Vendée (1793–1796), a popular mostly Catholic uprising against the [[Anti-clericalism|anti-clerical]] Republican government during the [[French Revolution]] was the first modern genocide.<ref name="SR-Vendée">Secher, Reynald. ''A French Genocide: The Vendée'', University of Notre Dame Press, (2003), {{ISBN|0-268-02865-6}}.</ref> Secher's claims caused a minor uproar in France and mainstream authorities rejected Secher's claims.<ref> |
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*{{cite book|first1=Stefan|last1=Berger|author-link1=Stefan Berger|first2=Mark|last2=Donovan|first3=Kevin|last3=Passmore|title=Writing National Histories: Western Europe Since 1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8hLx7cF25_kC|date=1999|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-16427-6}} |
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* François Lebrun, " La guerre de Vendée : massacre ou génocide ? ", ''L'Histoire'', Paris, n°78, May 1985, pp. 93–99, 81. September 1985, pp. 99–101. |
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*{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Tallonneau|title=Les Lucs et le génocide vendéen: comment on a manipulé les textes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PBpHAQAAIAAJ|year=1993|publisher=Editions Hécate|isbn=978-2-86913-051-7}} |
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*Claude Petitfrère, ''La Vendée et les Vendéens'', Editions Gallimard/Julliard, 1982. |
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*Voir Jean-Clément Martin, ''La Vendée et la France'', Le Seuil, 1987. |
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*Hugh Gough, "Genocide & the Bicentenary: the French Revolution and the revenge of the Vendée", (''Historical Journal'', vol. 30, 4, 1987, pp. 977–88.) p. 987. |
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*{{Cite book|last=Vovelle|first=Michel|title=Bourgeoisies de province et Revolution|publisher=Presses Universitaires de Grenoble|year=1987|page=quoted in Féhér}} |
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*{{Cite book|last=Price|first=Roger|title=A Concise History of France|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1993|page=107}} |
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*{{Cite book|last=Féhér|first=Ferenc|title=The French Revolution and the birth of modernity|publisher=University of California Press|year=1990|page=62}}</ref><ref name="CL-426–434">Claude Langlois, " Les héros quasi mythiques de la Vendée ou les dérives de l'imaginaire ", in F. Lebrun, 1987, pp. 426–34, et " Les dérives vendéennes de l'imaginaire révolutionnaire ", AESC, n°3, 1988, pp. 771–97.</ref> Timothy Tackett countered that "the Vendée was a tragic civil war with endless horrors committed by both sides—initiated, in fact, by the rebels themselves. The Vendeans were no more blameless than were the republicans. The use of the word genocide is wholly inaccurate and inappropriate."<ref>Voir l'intervention de Timothy Tackett, dans ''French Historical Studies'', Autumn 2001, p. 572.</ref> However, historians Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn consider the Vendée a case of genocide.<ref>^ Jonassohn, Kurt and Karin Solveig Bjeornson ''Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations'' p. 208, 1998, Transaction Publishers</ref> Historian Pierre Chaunu called the Vendée the first ideological genocide.<ref>Levene, Mark, ''Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: The rise of the West and the coming of Genocide'' p. 118</ref> Adam Jones estimates that 150,000 Vendeans died in what he also considers a genocide.<ref>Jones, Adam. Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction, p. 7 Routledge/Taylor & Francis Publishers, (2006)</ref> |
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==== Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ==== |
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The [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] ({{lang-pl|Powstanie Chmielnickiego}}; {{lang-lt|Chmelnickio sukilimas}}; {{lang-uk|повстання Богдана Хмельницького}}; {{lang-ru|восстание Богдана Хмельницкого}}; also known as the Cossack-Polish War,<ref>[http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\C\O\Cossack6PolishWar.htm Polish-Cossack War]</ref> the Chmielnicki Uprising, or the Khmelnytsky insurrection<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine/The-Cossacks The Khmelnytsky insurrection] [[Britannica]].</ref>) was a [[Cossack]] [[rebellion]] within the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] from 1648–1657, which led to the creation of a [[Cossack Hetmanate]] in Ukrainian lands. Under the command of [[Hetman]] [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]], the [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]], allied with the [[Crimean Tatars]] and local [[peasantry]], fought against the armies and [[paramilitary]] forces of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. The insurgency was accompanied by mass atrocities committed by Cossacks against the civilian population, especially against the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] clergy and the Jews. In [[Jewish history]], the Uprising is known for the concomitant outrages against the Jews who, in their capacity as leaseholders (''[[arendator]]s''), were seen by the peasants as their immediate oppressors.<ref name="jewish2005">[https://eleven.co.il/article/14533 Хмельницкий Богдан], ''[[Shorter Jewish Encyclopedia|The Shorter Jewish Encyclopedia]]'', 2005.</ref><ref name="jewish1906">[[Herman Rosenthal]]. [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4685-cossacks-uprising COSSACKS' UPRISING], ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia|The Jewish Encyclopedia]]'', 1906.</ref> |
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Most of the Jewish communities which existed in the rebellious Hetmanate were devastated by the uprising and the ensuing massacres, though occasionally a Jewish population was spared, notably after the capture of the town of [[Brody]] (the population of which was 70% Jewish). According to the book which is titled ''[[History of the Rus]]'', Khmelnytsky's rationale for sparing the Jews of Brody was largely mercantile because Brody was a major trading center and as a result, the Jews who lived there were judged to be useful "for turnovers and profits" and based on this assumption, they were only required to pay "moderate indemnities" in kind.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://izbornyk.org.ua/istrus/istrus05.htm|title=Chapter 4, p. 80.|work=[[History of the Rus]]}}: "А по симъ правиламъ и обширный торговый городъ Броды, наполненный почти одними Жидами, оставленъ въ прежней свободѣ и цѣлости, яко признанный отъ Рускихъ жителей полезнымъ для ихъ оборотовъ и заработковъ, а только взята отъ Жидовъ умѣренная контрибуція сукнами, полотнами и кожами для пошитья реестровому войску мундировъ и обуви, да для продовольствія войскъ нѣкоторая провизія."</ref> |
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Although many modern sources still give estimates of Jews killed in the uprising at 100,000<ref>Sources estimating 100,000 Jews killed: |
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* "Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed." [https://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html Judaism Timeline 1618–1770], ''[[CBS News]]''. Accessed 13 May 2007. |
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* "The peasants of Ukraine rose up in 1648 under a petty aristocrat Bogdan Chmielnicki. ... It is estimated that 100,000 Jews were massacred and 300 of their communities destroyed". Oscar Reiss. ''The Jews in Colonial America'', McFarland & Company, 2004, {{ISBN|0-7864-1730-7}}, pp. 98–99. |
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* "Moreover, Poles must have been keenly aware of the massacre of Jews in 1768 and even more so as the result of the much more widespread massacres (approximately 100,000 dead) of the earlier Chmielnicki pogroms during the preceding century." Manus I. Midlarsky. ''The Killing Trap: genocide in the twentieth century'', Cambridge University Press, 2005,{{ISBN|0-521-81545-2}}, p. 352. |
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* "... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's Cossack soldiers on the rampage." [[Martin Gilbert]]. ''Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past'', Columbia University Press, 1999, {{ISBN|0-231-10965-2}}, p. 219. |
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* "A series of massacres perpetrated by the Ukrainian Cossacks under the leadership of Bogdan Chmielnicki saw the death of up to 100,000 Jews and the destruction of perhaps 700 communities between 1648 and 1654 ..." Samuel Totten. ''Teaching About Genocide: Issues, Approaches, and Resources'', Information Age Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|1-59311-074-X}}, p. 25. |
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* "In response to Poland having taken control of much of the Ukraine in the early seventeenth century, Ukrainian peasants mobilized as groups of cavalry, and these "cossacks" in the Chmielnicki uprising of 1648 killed an estimated 100,000 Jews." Cara Camcastle. ''The More Moderate Side of Joseph De Maistre: Views on Political Liberty And Political Economy'', McGill-Queen's Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0-7735-2976-4}}, p. 26 |
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* "Is there not a difference in nature between Hitler's extermination of three million Polish Jews between 1939 and 1945 because he wanted every Jew dead and the mass murder 1648–49 of 100,000 Polish Jews by General Bogdan Chmielnicki because he wanted to end Polish rule in the Ukraine and was prepared to use Cossack terrorism to kill Jews in the process?" Colin Martin Tatz. ''With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide'', Verso, 2003, {{ISBN|1-85984-550-9}}, p. 146. |
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* "... massacring an estimated one hundred thousand Jews as the Ukrainian Bogdan Chmielnicki had done nearly three centuries earlier." Mosheh Weiss. ''A Brief History of the Jewish People'', Rowman & Littlefield, 2004, {{ISBN|0-7425-4402-8}}, p. 193. |
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</ref> or more,<ref>Sources estimating more than 100,000 Jews killed: |
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* "This situation changed for the worse in 1648–49, the years in which the Chmelnicki massacres took place. These persecutions, which swept over a large part of the Polish Commonwealth, wrought havoc with the Jewry of that country. Many Jewish communities were practically annihilated by the ruthless Cossack bands, and many more were disintegrated by the flight of their members to escape the enemy... The Jews of the Ukraine, Podolia and Eastern Galicia bore the brunt of the massacres. It is estimated that about two hundred thousand Jews were killed in these provinces during the fatal years of 1648–49." [[Meyer Waxman]]. ''History of Jewish Literature Part 3'', Kessinger Publishing, 2003, {{ISBN|0-7661-4370-8}}, p. 20. |
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* "...carried out in 1648 and 1649 by the Cossacks of the Ukraine, led by Bogdan Chmielnicki. The anti-Semitic outburst took the lives of from 150,000 to 200,000 Jews." Michael Clodfelter. ''Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999'', McFarland & Co Inc, 2002, p. 56. |
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* "Between 100,000–500,000 Jews were murdered by the Cossacks during the Chmielnicki massacres." Zev Garber, Bruce Zuckerman. ''Double Takes: Thinking and Rethinking Issues of Modern Judaism in Ancient Contexts'', University Press of America, 2004, {{ISBN|0-7618-2894-X}}, p. 77, footnote 17. |
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* "After defeating the Polish army, the Cossacks joined with the Polish peasantry, murdering over 100,000 Jews." Chmielnicki, Bohdan, ''[[The Columbia Encyclopedia]]'', Sixth Edition, 2001–05. |
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* "In 1648–55 the Cossack under Bogdan Chmielnicki (1593–1657) joined with the Tartars in the Ukraine to rid themselves of Polish rule... Before the decade was over, more than 100,000 Jews had been slaughtered." Robert Melvin Spector. ''World Without Civilization: Mass Murder and the Holocaust, History, and Analysis'', University Press of America, 2005, {{ISBN|0-7618-2963-6}}, p. 77. |
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* "By the time the Cossacks and the Poles signed a peace treaty in 1654, 700 Jewish communities had been destroyed and more than 100,000 Jews killed". Sol Scharfstein. ''Jewish History and You'', KTAV Publishing House, 2004, {{ISBN|0-88125-806-7}}, p. 42. |
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</ref> others put the numbers killed at between 40,000 and 100,000,<ref>Sources estimating 40,000–100,000 Jews killed: |
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* "Finally, in the spring of 1648, under the leadership of Bogdan Chmielnicki (1595–1657), the Cossacks revolted in the Ukraine against Polish Rule. ... Although the exact number of Jews massacred is unknown, with estimates ranging from 40,000 to 100,000 ..." Naomi E. Pasachoff, Robert J. Littman. ''A Concise History Of The Jewish People'', Rowman & Littlefield, 2005, {{ISBN|0-7425-4366-8}}, p. 182. |
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* "Even when there was mass destruction, as in the Chmielnicki uprising in 1648, the violence against Jews, where between 40000 and 100000 Jews were murdered ..." David Theo Goldberg, John Solomos. ''A Companion to Racial and Ethnic Studies'', Blackwell Publishing, 2002, {{ISBN|0-631-20616-7}}, p. 68. |
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* "A lower estimate puts the Jewish pogrom deaths in the Ukraine, 1648–56, at 56,000." Michael Clodfelter. ''Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999'', McFarland & Co Inc, 2002, p. 56. |
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</ref> and recent academic studies have argued fatalities were even lower. |
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A 2003 study by Israeli demographer [[Shaul Stampfer]] of [[Hebrew University]] dedicated solely to the issue of Jewish casualties in the uprising concludes that 18,000–20,000 Jews were killed of a total population of 40,000.<ref name="Stampfer">Stampfer, Shaul: ''Jewish History,'' vol 17: "What Actually Happened to the Jews of Ukraine in 1648?", pages 165–178. 2003. [https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1022330717763 Abstract free]</ref> [[Paul Robert Magocsi]] states that Jewish chroniclers of the 17th century "provide invariably inflated figures with respect to the loss of life among the Jewish population of Ukraine. The numbers range from 60,000–80,000 (Nathan Hannover) to 100,000 (Sabbatai Cohen), but that "[t]he Israeli scholars Shmuel Ettinger and Bernard D. Weinryb speak instead of the 'annihilation of tens of thousands of Jewish lives', and the Ukrainian-American historian Jarowlaw Pelenski narrows the number of Jewish deaths to between 6,000 and 14,000".<ref>[[Paul Robert Magocsi]], ''A History of Ukraine'', University of Toronto Press, 1996, {{ISBN|0-8020-7820-6}}, p. 201.</ref> [[Orest Subtelny]] concludes: |
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<blockquote>Between 1648 and 1656, tens of thousands of Jews—given the lack of reliable data, it is impossible to establish more accurate figures—were killed by the rebels, and to this day the Khmelnytsky uprising is considered by Jews to be one of the most traumatic events in their history.{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}}<!-- Empty reference <ref name="Ukraine 1988, pp. 127-128"/>--></blockquote> |
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==== Ireland ==== |
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[[File:An gorta Mor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Ireland's Holocaust'' a nationalist mural on the Ballymurphy Road, [[Belfast]]. "An Gorta Mór, Britain's genocide by starvation, Ireland's holocaust 1845–1849, over 1,500,000 deaths".]] |
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===== War of the Three Kingdoms ===== |
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{{See also|Cromwellian conquest of Ireland|Cromwellian Plantation}} |
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Towards the end of the [[War of the Three Kingdoms]] (1639–1651), the English [[Rump Parliament]] sent the [[New Model Army]] to Ireland to subdue and take revenge on the Catholic population of the country and also to prevent [[Cavaliers|Royalists]] loyal to [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] from using [[Ireland]] as a base to threaten [[England]]. The force was initially under the command of [[Oliver Cromwell]] and it was later under the command of other [[roundhead|parliamentary]] generals. The Army sought to secure the country, but also to confiscate the lands of Irish families that had been involved in the fighting. This became a continuation of the Elizabethan policy of encouraging Protestant settlement of Ireland, because the Protestant New Model army soldiers could be paid in confiscated lands rather than in cash.<ref name=THOC>{{cite web|first=John|last=Walsh|url=http://www.irish-society.org/Hedgemaster%20Archives/Cromwell_2.htm|title="To Hell or to Connaught" Oliver Cromwell's Settlement of Ireland|publisher=Irish Cultural Society|date=April 2004|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011165306/http://www.irish-society.org/Hedgemaster%20Archives/Cromwell_2.htm|archive-date=11 October 2007}}</ref> |
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During the [[Interregnum (England)|Interregnum]] (1651–1660), this policy was enhanced with the passing of the [[Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652|Act of Settlement of Ireland]] in 1652. Its goal was a further transfer of land from Irish to English hands.<ref name=THOC/> The immediate war aims and the longer term policies of the English Parliamentarians resulted in an attempt by the English to transfer the native population to the western fringes to make way for Protestant settlers. This policy was reflected in a phrase attributed - without factual foundation - to Cromwell: "To Hell or to Connaught" and has been described by some nationalist historians as genocide.<ref name="near-genocidal">genocidal or near-genocidal: |
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* {{cite book|editor-first=Albert|editor-last=Breton|book-title=Nationalism and Rationality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=slwrBIPU7W8C|date=24 November 1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-48098-7|title=Regulating nations and ethnic communities |first1=Brendam |last1=O'Leary |first2=John |last2=McGarry |page=248 |quote="Oliver Cromwell offered the Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer. They could go 'To Hell or to Connaught!'"}} |
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* {{cite book|author=Tim Pat Coogan|title=The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal and the Search for Peace|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=33sWKhmPl3UC|date=5 January 2002|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-29418-2|page=6 |quote=The massacres by Catholics of Protestants, which occurred in the religious wars of the 1640s, were magnified for propagandist purposes to justify Cromwell's subsequent genocide.}} |
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* {{cite book|author=Peter Berresford Ellis|title=Eyewitness to Irish History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVaUkHKOyLAC|date= 2007|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-05312-6}} "It was to be the justification for Cromwell's genocidal campaign and settlement." |
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* {{harvnb|Levene|2005}} "[The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state."</ref> |
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==== British Empire ==== |
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===== Great Irish Famine ===== |
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{{Main|Great Famine (Ireland)}} |
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[[File:Irish potato famine Bridget O'Donnel.jpg|thumb|upright|Great Irish Famine]] |
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A small minority of historians regard the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine of Ireland]] (1845–1852) as an example of genocide. During the famine, approximately 1 million people died and a million more emigrated from Ireland,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ross |first=David |year=2002 |title=Ireland: History of a Nation |publisher=New Lanark: Geddes & Grosset |isbn=978-1-84205-164-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/irelandhistoryof0000ross/page/226 226] |url=https://archive.org/details/irelandhistoryof0000ross/page/226 }}</ref> causing the island's population to fall by between 20% and 25%.{{sfn|Kinealy|1995|p=357}} The [[Proximate cause#Historiographical usage|proximate cause]] of [[famine]] was a potato disease commonly known as [[potato blight]].{{sfn|Ó Gráda|2000|p=7}} Although blight ravaged potato crops [[European Potato Failure|throughout Europe]] during the 1840s, the impact and human cost in Ireland{{spaced ndash}}where one-third of the population was entirely dependent on the potato for food{{spaced ndash}}was exacerbated by a host of political, social, and economic factors that remain the subject of historical debate.{{sfn|Woodham-Smith|1964|p=19}}{{sfn|Kinealy|1995|pp=xvi–ii, 2–3}} |
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According to [[Liam Kennedy (historian)|Liam Kennedy]], "virtually all historians of Ireland" reject the genocide allegations.{{sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=111}} Historian [[Donald Akenson]], who has written twenty-four books on Ireland, has said of the use of the word 'Holocaust' in relation of Ireland: "When you see it, you know that you are encountering famine-porn. It is inevitably part of a presentation that is historically unbalanced and, like other kinds of pornography, is distinguished by a covert (and sometimes overt) appeal to misanthropy and almost always an incitement to hatred."{{sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=104}} |
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===== Oceania ===== |
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===== Australia ===== |
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{{further|Australian genocide debate|Genocide of indigenous peoples#Colonization of Australia and Tasmania|Tasmania#Removal of Aborigines}} |
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[[File:Skirmish near Creen Creek.jpg|thumb|[[Australian frontier wars]]]] |
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According to one report published in 2009, in 1789 the British deliberately spread [[smallpox]] from the [[First Fleet#First Fleet Smallpox|First Fleet]] in order to counter overwhelming native tribes near Sydney in New South Wales. In his book ''An Indelible Stain'', Henry Reynolds described this act as genocide.<ref>Flood, Dr Josephine, ''The Original Australians: Story of the Aboriginal People'', published by Allen & Unwin, 2006, p. 125.</ref> However the majority of scholars disagree that the initial smallpox was the result of deliberate biological warfare and have suggested other causes.<ref>Flood, Dr Josephine, The Original Australians, p. 126.</ref><ref>{{citation |author1=Macknight, C. C. |title="Macassans and the Aboriginal past" in ''Archaeologia Oceania'' |date=1986 |volume=21 |pages=69–75}}.</ref><ref>{{citation |first1=John |last1=Connor |title=The Australian Frontier Wars, 1788–1838 |publisher=UNSW Press |year=2002 |page=29}}.</ref> |
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The [[Black War]] was a period of conflict between British colonists and [[aboriginal Tasmanians]] in [[Van Diemen's Land]] (now [[Tasmania]]) in the early 19th century. The conflict, in combination with introduced [[Infectious disease|diseases]] and other factors, had such devastating impacts on the aboriginal Tasmanian population that it was reported that they had been exterminated.{{sfn|Bonwick|1870<!-- |p=?? -->}}<ref name="Turnbull01">{{cite book|first=Clive|last=Turnbull|title=Black War: The Extermination of the Tasmanian Aborigines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXFcmQEACAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Lansdowne |pages=128–32}}</ref> Historian Geoffrey Blainey wrote that by 1830, "Disease had killed most of them but warfare and private violence had also been devastating."<ref name="Blainey1980">{{cite book|first=Geoffrey|last=Blainey|author-link=Geoffrey Blainey|title=A Land Half Won|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CH8rAAAAIAAJ|date=1 January 1980|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-333-29949-4 |page=75}}</ref> [[Smallpox]] was the principal cause of aboriginal deaths in the 19th century.{{sfn|Glynn|Glynn|2004|p={{google books|id=tL4W3YNMYLIC|p=145}}}} |
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Lemkin and most other comparative genocide scholars present the extinction of the Tasmanian aborigines as a textbook example of a genocide, while the majority of Australian experts are more circumspect.{{sfn|Curthoys|2008|p={{google books|id=RBgoNN4MG-YC|p= 240}}}}{{sfn|Levene|2005|p={{google books|id=3PsLXeDflfMC|p=344 footnote 105}}}} Detailed studies of the events surrounding the extinction have raised questions about some of the details and interpretations in earlier histories.{{sfn|Curthoys|2008|p={{google books|id=RBgoNN4MG-YC|p=250}}}}<ref name="Moses-2004">{{cite book|editor=A. Dirk Moses|book-title=Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zHAGNPTkqIC|year=2004|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-57181-410-4|last=Reynolds|first=Henry|author-link=Henry Reynolds (historian)|title=Genocide in Tasmania?|page={{google books|id=5zHAGNPTkqIC|pp=127–47}}}}</ref> Curthoys concluded, "It is time for a more robust exchange between genocide and Tasmanian historical scholarship if we are to understand better what did happen in Tasmania."{{sfn|Curthoys|2008|p={{google books|id=id=RBgoNN4MG-YC|pp=229–47}}}} |
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On the Australian continent during the colonial period (1788–1901), the population of 500,000–750,000 Australian aborigines was reduced to fewer than 50,000.{{sfn|Kiernan|2002|p=163}}{{sfn|Madley|2008|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25482686?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents 77]}} Most were devastated by the introduction of alien diseases after contact with Europeans, while perhaps 20,000 were killed by massacres and fighting with colonists.{{sfn|Kiernan|2002|p=163}} |
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===== New Zealand ===== |
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In the early 19th century, [[Ngāti Mutunga]] and [[Ngāti Tama]] (local Māori tribes) massacred the Moriori people. The Moriori were the [[indigenous people]] of the [[Chatham Islands]] (''Rekohu'' in [[Moriori language|Moriori]], ''Wharekauri'' in [[Māori language|Māori]]), east of the New Zealand [[archipelago]] in the Pacific Ocean. These people lived by a code of non-violence and passive resistance (see [[Nunuku-whenua]]), which led to their near-extinction at the hands of [[Taranaki (iwi)|Taranaki]] [[Māori people|Māori]] invaders in the 1830s.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |
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| last1 = Solomon |
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| first1 = Māui |
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|first2=Denise |
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|last2=Davis |
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| title = Moriori |
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| encyclopedia = Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |
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| date =2 September 2011 |
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| url = http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/moriori |
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|access-date=7 March 2014}}</ref> |
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In 1835, some Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama from the [[Taranaki Region|Taranaki]] region of [[North Island]] invaded the Chathams. On 19 November 1835, the ''Rodney'', a European ship hired by the Māori, arrived carrying 500 Māori armed with guns, clubs, and axes, followed by another ship with 400 more warriors on 5 December 1835. They proceeded to enslave some Moriori and kill and [[cannibalism|cannibalise]] others. "Parties of warriors armed with muskets, clubs and tomahawks, led by their chiefs, walked through Moriori tribal territories and settlements without warning, permission or greeting. If the districts were wanted by the invaders, they curtly informed the inhabitants that their land had been taken and the Moriori living there were now vassals."{{sfn|King|2000|pp=59–60}} |
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A council of Moriori elders was convened at the settlement called Te Awapatiki. Despite knowing of the Māori predilection for killing and eating the conquered, and despite the admonition by some of the elder chiefs that the principle of Nunuku was not appropriate now, two chiefs—Tapata and Torea—declared that "the law of Nunuku was not a strategy for survival, to be varied as conditions changed; it was a moral imperative."{{sfn|King|2000}} A Moriori survivor recalled: "[The Maori] commenced to kill us like sheep.... [We] were terrified, fled to the bush, concealed ourselves in holes underground, and in any place to escape our enemies. It was of no avail; we were discovered and killed—men, women and children indiscriminately." A Māori conqueror explained, "We took possession... in accordance with our customs and we caught all the people. Not one escaped..."<ref>{{cite book |
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| last = Diamond |
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| first = Jared |
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| author-link = Jared Diamond |
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| title = Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies |
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| publisher = W.W. Norton |
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| year = 1997 |
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| location = New York |
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| page = 53 |
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| title-link = Guns, Germs, and Steel |
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}}</ref> |
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After the invasion, Moriori were forbidden to marry Moriori, or to have children with each other. All became slaves of the invaders. Many Moriori women had children by their Maori masters. A small number of Moriori women eventually married either Maori or European men. Some were taken from the Chathams and never returned. Only 101 Moriori out of a population of about 2,000 were left alive by 1862.{{sfn|Kopel|Gallant|Eisen|2003}} Although the last Moriori of unmixed ancestry, [[Tommy Solomon]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.education-resources.co.nz/t-solomon.htm|title=Tommy Solomon of Chatham Island|publisher=education-resources.co.nz|date=7 April 2006|access-date=15 February 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160123025254/http://www.education-resources.co.nz/t-solomon.htm|archive-date=23 January 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> died in 1933, several thousand mixed-ancestry Moriori are alive today. |
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== First half of the 20th century (World War I through World War II)== |
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In 1915, during [[World War I]], the concept of [[crimes against humanity]] was introduced into international relations for the first time when the [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] sent a letter to the government of the [[Ottoman Empire]], a member of the [[Central Powers]], protesting massacres that were taking place within the Empire.<ref name="CAH1915">1915 declaration: |
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* {{citation|url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/T?&report=hr933&dbname=106& |title=Affirmation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution |publisher=106th Congress, 2nd Session, House of Representatives }}; |
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* {{citation|url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.RES.316: |title=Affirmation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution (Introduced in House of Representatives) |publisher=109th Congress, 1st Session |date=15 September 2005 }}; {{citation|url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:HE00316:|title=H.res.316|date=14 June 2005|access-date=15 September 2005|publisher=House Committee/Subcommittee:International Relations actions|postscript=: Status: Ordered to be Reported by the Yeas and Nays: 40 – 7.}} |
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* {{citation|url=http://www.armenian-genocide.org/Affirmation.160/current_category.7/affirmation_detail.html|title=The French, British and Russian joint declaration|type=original source of the telegram|publisher=The Department of State|place=Washington, D.C.|date=24 May 1915|access-date=4 June 2017}}</ref> |
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=== Ottoman Empire/Turkey === |
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{{Main|Armenian Genocide|Assyrian Genocide|Greek genocide|Great Famine of Mount Lebanon|Dersim Massacre}} |
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[[File:Morgenthau336.jpg|thumb|Of this photo, the U.S. ambassador [[Henry Morgenthau, Sr.]] wrote, "Scenes like this were common all over the Armenian provinces, in the spring and summer months of 1915. Death in its several forms—massacre, starvation, exhaustion—destroyed the larger part of the refugees. The Turkish policy was that of extermination under the guise of deportation".<ref>{{cite book | last = Morgenthau | first = Henry | year = 1918 | title = Ambassador Morgenthau's Story | place = Garden City, NY| publisher = Doubleday | url = https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ENsLAAAAYAAJ}}</ref>]] |
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On 24 May 1915, the Allied Powers (Britain, France, and Russia) jointly issued a statement which for the first time ever explicitly charged a government, the [[Ottoman Empire]], with committing a "[[Crimes against humanity|crime against humanity]]" in reference to that regime's persecution of its Christian minorities, including [[Armenians]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] and [[Greeks]].<ref>{{Citation | title = The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century | first = Manus I | last = Midlarsky | page = 342}}</ref> Many researchers consider these events to be part of the policy of planned ethnoreligious purification of the Turkish state advanced by the [[Young Turks]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|pp=171–72}} A resolution was placed before the IAGS membership to recognize the Greek and Assyrian/Chaldean components of the Ottoman genocide against Christians, alongside the Armenian strand of the genocide (which the IAGS has already formally acknowledged). The result, passed emphatically in December 2007 despite not inconsiderable opposition, was a resolution which I co-drafted, reading as follows:... (IAGS resolution is on p. 172)</ref> |
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<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.genocidescholars.org/sites/default/files/document%09%5Bcurrent-page%3A1%5D/documents/IAGS-Resolution-Assyrian%20and%20Greek%20Genocide.pdf|title=Resolution by the International Association of Genocide Scholars|work=IAGS|date=December 2007|access-date=15 February 2016}}{{dead link|date=November 2019|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.am/eng/news/16644.html|title=Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament – full text|publisher=Armenia NEWS.am|date=15 March 2010|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref><ref>Gaunt, David. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4mug9LrpLKcC Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I]''. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2006.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/14623520801950820 | last1 = Schaller | first1 = Dominik J. | last2 = Zimmerer | first2 = Jürgen | year = 2008 | title = Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction | journal = Journal of Genocide Research | volume = 10 | issue = 1| pages = 7–14 | s2cid = 71515470 }}</ref> |
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This joint statement stated, "[i]n view of these new crimes of [[Ottoman Empire|Turkey]] against humanity and civilization, the [[Allies of World War I|Allied Governments]] announce publicly to the [[Sublime Porte]] that they will hold personally responsible for these crimes all members of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Government]], as well as those of their agents who are implicated in such massacres."<ref name="CAH1915" /> |
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==== Armenians ==== |
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The [[Armenian Genocide]] ({{Lang-hy|[[wikt:հայոց|Հայոց]] [[wikt:ցեղասպանություն|Ցեղասպանություն]]}}, [[Romanization of Armenian|translit.:]] {{lang|hy-Latn|Hayots' Ts'eġaspanout'youn}}; {{Lang-tr |Ermeni Soykırımı and Ermeni Kıyımı}}) refers to the deliberate and systematic destruction of the [[Armenians|Armenian]] population of the [[Ottoman Empire]] during and just after World War I. It was implemented through extensive massacres and [[deportations]], with the deportations consisting of [[death march|forced marches]] under conditions designed to lead to the death of the deportees. The total number of resulting deaths is generally held to have been between one and one and a half million.<ref>{{Citation | author-link = Vahakn N. Dadrian| last = Dadrian | first = Vahakn N | title = The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus | place = Oxford | publisher = Berghahn | year = 1995}}. |
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* {{Citation | first = Peter | last = Balakian | title = The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response | place = New York | publisher = HarperCollins | year = 2003}}. |
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* {{Citation | first = Donald | last = Bloxham | title = The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians | place = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2005}}. |
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* {{Citation | first = Taner | last = Akçam | author-link = Taner Akçam | title = The Young Turks' Crime Against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire | place = Princeton | publisher = [[Princeton University Press]] | year = 2012| title-link = The Young Turks' Crime Against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire }}</ref> |
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The genocide began on 24 April 1915, when Ottoman authorities arrested some [[Armenian notables deported from the Ottoman capital in 1915|250 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders]] in [[Istanbul|Constantinople]]. Thereafter, the Ottoman military uprooted Armenians from their homes and forced them to march for hundreds of miles, without food and water, to the desert of what is now [[Syria]]. Massacres ignored age and gender, with rape and other acts of [[sexual abuse]] being commonplace.<ref>{{Citation | first1 = Hans-Lukas | last1 = Kieser | author-link2 = Hans-Lukas Kieser| first2 = Dominik J | last2 = Schaller | title = Der Völkermord an den Armeniern und die Shoah |trans-title=The Armenian Genocide and the Shoah | language = de |publisher = Chronos | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-3-0340-0561-6 | page = 114}}</ref> The majority of [[Armenian diaspora]] communities were founded as a result of these events. Mass killings continued under the [[Republic of Turkey]] during the [[Turkish–Armenian War]] phase of Turkish War of |
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Independence.<ref>{{cite book|first=Christopher J.|last=Walker|title=Armenia, the Survival of a Nation|url=https://archive.org/details/armeniasurvivalo0000walk_c0v5|year=1980|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0-312-04944-7}} |
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* {{cite book| last = Akçam | first= Taner|title= A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility | year = 2007|page =327|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=E-_XTh0M4swC| isbn= 9780805086652}}</ref> |
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[[File:Marcharmenians.jpg|thumb|Armenian civilians, escorted by armed Ottoman soldiers, are marched through [[Elâzığ|Kharpert]] to a prison in the nearby Mezireh district, April 1915.]] |
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Modern Turkey succeeded the Ottoman Empire in 1923 and denies that a genocide took place. It has resisted calls in recent years by scholars, countries and international organizations to acknowledge the crime. |
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==== Assyrians ==== |
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The [[Assyrian Genocide]] (also known as ''Sayfo'' or ''Seyfo''; [[Syriac language|Aramaic]]: ''<big>ܩܛܠܐ ܕܥܡܐ ܐܬܘܪܝܐ</big>'' or <big>ܣܝܦܐ</big>, {{lang-tr|Süryani Soykırımı}}) was committed against the Assyrian population of the [[Ottoman Empire]] during the First World War by the Young Turks.<ref name="Aprim2005">{{cite book |title=Assyrians: the continuous saga|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V4glAQAAMAAJ|date=January 2005|publisher=F.A. Aprim |page = 40 | first = Frederick A. | last = Aprim|isbn = 9781413438574}}</ref> The [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] population of northern [[Mesopotamia]] ([[Tur Abdin]], [[Hakkari Province|Hakkari]], [[Van Province|Van]], [[Siirt Province|Siirt]] region in modern-day southeastern Turkey and [[Urmia]] region in northwestern Iran) was forcibly relocated and massacred by Ottoman ([[Turkish people|Turkish]] and allied [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]]) forces between 1914 and 1920.<ref>{{Cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PK-TPKvmG7UC |title = Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide | author1-link = Bat Ye'or| last1 = Ye'or | first1 = Bat | first2 = Miriam | last2 = Kochan | first3 = David | last3 = Littman |year = 2002 |publisher = Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |pages = 148–49 |isbn = 978-0-8386-3943-6 | oclc = 47054791}}</ref> This genocide paralleled the [[Armenian Genocide]] and [[Greek genocide]].{{sfn|Jones|2006|p={{Google books|id=BqdVudSuTRIC|p=54}}}}<ref name = "Betts2010" /> The Assyro-Chaldean National Council stated in a 4 December 1922, memorandum that the total death toll is unknown, but it estimated that about 750,000 [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] died between 1914 and 1918.<ref name = "Yacoub">{{Citation | first = Joseph | last = Yacoub | language = fr | title = La question assyro-chaldéenne, les Puissances européennes et la SDN (1908–1938) |trans-title=The Assyro-Chaldean question: the European Powers and the League of Nations, 1908–38 | type = thèse | place = Lyon | year = 1985 | page = 156}}, 4 vol.</ref> |
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==== Greeks ==== |
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The [[Greek genocide]]<ref name=IAGSrec>{{Citation | url = http://www.aina.org/news/20071215131949.htm | publisher = Assyrian International News Agency | date = 15 December 2007 | title = International Genocide Scholars Association Officially Recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides | access-date =15 December 2007}}</ref> refers to the fate of the [[Ottoman Greeks|Greek]] population of the Ottoman Empire during and in the aftermath of World War I (1914–18). Like Armenians and Assyrians, the Greeks were subjected to various forms of persecution including massacres, [[Population transfer|expulsion]]s, and [[death march]]es by [[Young Turks]].{{sfn|Jones|2010}}<ref name="Betts2010">{{cite book| first =Paul | last = Betts|title= Years of Persecution, Years of Extermination: Saul Friedlander and the Future of Holocaust Studies|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Tqo3h5HQPO4C&pg=PA214 |access-date=17 November 2012|date=17 August 2010|publisher=Continuum |isbn = 978-1-4411-2987-1|pages=214–|quote=Already in the period 1912–14, the Young Turk leadership aimed to replace the multi-ethnic and multi-confessional.... The elimination of the Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek populations was an integral part of the Young Turk struggle for ...}}</ref> Mass killing of Greeks continued under the [[Turkish National Movement]] during the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)|Greco-Turkish War]] phase of the Turkish War of Independence.<ref>{{Citation | title = Death by Government | first = Rudolph | last = Rummel | year = 1994}}</ref> George W. Rendel of the British Foreign Office, among other diplomats, noted the massacres and deportations of Greeks during the post-Armistice period.<ref name="Rendel">{{Citation | publisher = Foreign Office | type = memorandum | first = GW | last = Rendel | title = Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice | date = 20 March 1922}}</ref> Estimates of the number of Anatolian Greeks killed range from 348,000 to 900,000.<ref>Jones 2010, pp. 150–51: ‘By the beginning of the First World War, a majority of the region’s ethnic Greeks still lived in present-day Turkey, mostly in Thrace (the only remaining Ottoman territory in Europe, abutting the Greek border), and along the Aegean and Black Sea coasts. They would be targeted both prior to and alongside the Armenians of Anatolia and the Assyrians of Anatolia and Mesopotamia… The major populations of "Anatolian Greeks" include those along the Aegean coast and those in Cappadocia (central Anatolia), but not the Greeks of the Thrace region west of the Bosphorus… A "Christian genocide" framing acknowledges the historic claims of Assyrian and Greek peoples, and the movements now stirring for recognition and restitution among [[Greek diaspora|Greek]] and [[Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora|Assyrian]] diasporas. It also brings to light the quite staggering cumulative death toll among the various Christian groups that were targeted for genocide… of the 1.5 million Greeks of Asia minor—Ionians, Pontians, and Cappadocians—approximately 750,000 were massacred and 750,000 were exiled. Pontian deaths alone totaled 353,000.</ref><ref>Jones 2010, p. 166: ‘An estimate of the Pontian Greek death toll at all stages of the anti-Christian genocide is about 350,000; for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm taken together, the toll surely exceeded half a million, and may approach the 900,000 killed that a team of US researchers found in the early postwar period. Most surviving Greeks were expelled to Greece as part of the tumultuous "population exchanges" that set the seal on a heavily "Turkified" state.’</ref><ref>Taner Akcam (21 August 2007). A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. Henry Holt and Company. p. 107. {{ISBN|978-1-4668-3212-1}}.</ref>{{sfn|Rummel|1998|p=[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP5.HTM Chapter 5]}} |
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==== Mount Lebanon ==== |
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{{main|Great Famine of Mount Lebanon}} |
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==== Dersim Kurds ==== |
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The [[Dersim massacre]] refers to the depopulation of [[Dersim]] in [[Turkish Kurdistan]], in 1937–38, in which approximately 13,000–40,000 [[Alevi]] [[Kurds]]<ref>[http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/04/turkey-alevis-shadow-military-tanks-150419112330850.html Turkey's Alevis 'under the shadow of military tanks'], Al Jazeera</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=dgDi9qFT41oC&pg=PA209#v=onepage&q&f=false A Modern History of the Kurds: Third Edition p. 209], David McDowall</ref> were killed and thousands more were driven into exile. A key component of the [[Turkification]] process was a policy of massive population resettlement. The main document, the [[1934 Turkish Resettlement Law|1934 Law on Resettlement]], was used to target the region of Dersim as one of its first test cases, with disastrous consequences for the local population.{{sfn|Andreopoulos|1988|p= 11}} |
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Many Kurds and some ethnic Turks consider the events that took place in Dersim to constitute genocide. A prominent proponent of this view is [[İsmail Beşikçi]].<ref>{{Citation | language = tr | first = İsmail | last = Besikçi | title = Tunceli Kanunu (1935) ve Dersim Jenosidi | publisher = Belge Yayınları | year = 1990}}</ref> Under international laws, the actions of the Turkish authorities were arguably not genocide, because they were not aimed at the extermination of a people, but at resettlement and suppression.{{sfn|van Bruineßen|1994}} A Turkish court ruled in 2011 that the events could not be considered genocide because they were not directed systematically against an ethnic group.<ref>{{cite news|last=Saymaz|first=Ismail | author-link =İsmail Saymaz|title=Turkish prosecutor refuses to hear Dersim 'genocide' claim|url = http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=turkish-prosecutor-refuses-to-hear-dersim-8216genocide8217-claims-2011-03-15 |access-date=24 November 2011|newspaper=[[Hürriyet Daily News]] |date=14 March 2011}}</ref> Scholars such as [[Martin van Bruinessen]], have instead talked of an [[ethnocide]] directed against the local language and identity.{{sfn|van Bruineßen|1994}} |
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=== Kingdom of Iraq === |
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{{Main|Simele massacre}} |
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The [[Simele massacre]] ({{lang-syr|'''ܦܪܡܬܐ ܕܣܡܠܐ'''}} {{transl|syr|pramta d-Simele}}, {{lang-ar|'''مذبحة سميل'''}} {{transl|ar|maḏbaḥat Summayl}}) was a [[massacre]] committed by the armed forces of the [[Kingdom of Iraq]] during a campaign which systematically targeted the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] of northern Iraq in August 1933. The term is used to describe not only the massacre in [[Simele]], but also the killing spree that took place in 63 Assyrian villages in the [[Dohuk Governorate|Dohuk]] and [[Mosul Governorate|Mosul]] districts which led to the deaths of between 5,000<ref name=Zubaida370>{{Harvnb|Zubaida|2000|p=370}}</ref> and 6,000<ref name = "IFHR">{{cite web|title=Displaced persons in Iraqi Kurdistan and Iraqi refugees in Iran|url=http://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/iq350a.pdf|work=fidh.org|publisher=International Federation for Human Rights|date=January 2003|access-date=23 September 2011}}</ref><ref name = "DeKelaita">{{cite web|last=DeKelaita|first=Robert|title=The Origins and Developments of Assyrian Nationalism|url=http://www.aina.org/books/oadoan.pdf|work=Committee on International Relations Of the [[University of Chicago]]|publisher=Assyrian International News Agency|date=22 November 2009|access-date=23 September 2011}}</ref> Assyrians. |
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The Simele massacre inspired [[Raphael Lemkin]] to create the concept of [[genocide]].<ref name="Donabed2015">{{cite book|first=Sargon|last=Donabed|title=Reforging a Forgotten History: Iraq and the Assyrians in the 20th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bwLdCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT110|date=1 February 2015|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-8605-6|pages=110–}}</ref> In 1933, Lemkin delivered a presentation to the Legal Council of the [[League of Nations]] conference on international criminal law in [[Madrid]], for which he prepared an essay on the Crime of Barbarity as a crime against international law. The concept of the "crime of barbarity" evolved into the idea of genocide, and it was based on the [[Simele massacre]] and the [[Armenian Genocide]], and it later included [[the Holocaust]].<ref name="Euro">{{cite web|title=Raphael Lemkin|url=http://www.europaworld.org/issue40/raphaellemkin22601.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100416164051/http://www.europaworld.org/issue40/raphaellemkin22601.htm|archive-date=16 April 2010 |publisher=EuropeWorld|date=22 June 2001|access-date=23 September 2011}}</ref> |
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===Russia and the Soviet Union=== |
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====Pogroms of Jews==== |
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{{main|Antisemitism in the Russian Empire|Pogroms in the Russian Empire|Antisemitism in the Soviet Union}} |
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The Whitaker Report of the United Nations cited the massacre of 100,000 to 250,000 Jews in more than 2,000 [[pogrom]]s which occurred during the [[White Terror (Russia)|White Terror]] in Russia as an act of [[genocide]].<ref>{{cite web |title=UN Whitaker Report on Genocide, 1985, paragraphs 14 to 24 pages 5 to 10» . |url=http://www.preventgenocide.org/prevent/UNdocs/whitaker/section5.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613150627/http://www.preventgenocide.org/prevent/UNdocs/whitaker/section5.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-06-13 |website=preventgenocideinternational}}</ref> During the [[Russian Civil War]], between 1918 and 1921, a total of 1,236 pogroms were committed against Jews in 524 towns in [[Ukraine]]. Estimates of the number of Jews who were killed in these pogroms range from 30,000 to 60,000.<ref>"History and Culture of Jews in Ukraine ("«Нариси з історії та культури євреїв України»)«Дух і літера» publ., Kyiv, 2008, с. 128 – 135</ref><ref>D. Vital. ''Zionism: the crucial phase''. Oxford University Press. 1987. p. 359</ref> Of the recorded 1,236 pogroms and excesses, 493 were carried out by [[Ukrainian People's Republic]] soldiers who were under the command of [[Symon Petliura]], 307 by independent Ukrainian warlords, 213 by [[Denikin]]'s army, 106 by the [[Red Army]] and 32 by the [[Polish Army]].<ref>R. Pipes. ''A Concise History of the Russian Revolution''. Vintage Books. 1996. p. 262.</ref> |
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====Decossackization==== |
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{{Main|Decossackization}} |
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During the [[Russian Civil War]] the [[Bolshevik]]s engaged in a genocidal campaign against the [[Don Cossacks]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=Mikhail |last1=Heller|first2=Aleksandr |last2=Nekrich |author-link2=Alexander Nekrich|title=Utopia in power: the history of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2JA9Fa1Epr8C|date=January 1988|publisher=Summit Books|isbn=978-0-671-64535-9}}</ref><ref>Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, [[Stéphane Courtois]]. ''[[The Black Book of Communism]]: Crimes, Terror, Repression''. [[Harvard University Press]], 1999. {{ISBN|0-674-07608-7}} pp. 8–9</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Orlando|last=Figes|title=A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution, 1891–1924|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ety5B4feoDoC|year=1997|publisher=Pimlico|isbn=978-0-7126-7327-3 |author-link=Orlando Figes|page= 660}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Donald|last=Rayfield|title=Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those who Killed for Him|url=https://archive.org/details/stalinhishangmen00dona/page/83|year=2004|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-375-50632-1|author-link=Donald Rayfield|page=[https://archive.org/details/stalinhishangmen00dona/page/83 83]}}</ref><ref name="Rummel">{{cite book|author=R. J. Rummel|title=Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocides and Mass Murders Since 1917|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sK5CJFpb2DAC|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-2750-8 |author-link=R. J. Rummel|page={{google books|id=sK5CJFpb2DAC|p=2}}|year=1996}}</ref> University of York Russian specialist Shane O'Rourke states that "ten thousand Cossacks were systematically slaughtered in a few weeks in January 1919" and he also states that this mass-slaughter "was one of the main factors which led to the disappearance of the Cossacks as a nation."<ref name="Extermination order">[http://www.york.ac.uk/admin/presspr/pressreleases/cossacks.htm Soviet order to exterminate Cossacks is unearthed] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091210025518/http://www.york.ac.uk/admin/presspr/pressreleases/cossacks.htm |date=10 December 2009 }} [[University of York]] Communications Office, 21 January 2003</ref> The late [[Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev]], head of the Presidential Committee for the Rehabilitation of Victims of Political Repression, notes that "hundreds of thousands of Cossacks were killed".<ref>[[Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev]]. ''A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia.'' [[Yale University Press]], 2002. {{ISBN|0-300-08760-8}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=ChRk43tVxTwC&pg=PA102&dq=Hundreds+of+thousands+of+Cossacks+were+killed&lr=&ei=GoN5SuenNpP4NYXshIMN#v=onepage&q=&f=false p. 102] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141119143859/https://books.google.com/books?id=ChRk43tVxTwC&pg=PA102&dq=Hundreds+of+thousands+of+Cossacks+were+killed&lr=&ei=GoN5SuenNpP4NYXshIMN#v=onepage&q=&f=false |date=19 November 2014 }}</ref> Historian [[Robert Gellately]] claims that "the most reliable estimates indicate that between 300,000 and 500,000 were killed or deported in 1919–20" out of a population of around three million.<ref name="Gellately">[[Robert Gellately]]. ''[http://www.fsu.edu/news/2007/09/11/gellately.book/ Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505235017/http://www.fsu.edu/news/2007/09/11/gellately.book/ |date=May 5, 2016 }}'' [[Alfred A. Knopf|Knopf]], 2007 {{ISBN|1-4000-4005-1}} pp. 70–71.</ref> |
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Peter Holquist states that the overall number of executions which were carried out is difficult to establish. In some regions hundreds were executed. In Khoper, the tribunal was very active, with a one-month total of 226 executions. The Tsymlianskaia tribunal oversaw the execution of over 700 people. The Kotel'nikovo tribunal executed 117 in early May and nearly 1,000 were executed overall. Others were not quite as active. The Berezovskaia tribunal made a total of twenty arrests in a community of 13,500 people. Holquist also notes that some of White reports of Red atrocities in the Don were consciously scripted for agitation purposes.<ref name=Holquist>Holquist, Peter, "A Russian Vendee: The Practice of Revolutionary Politics in the Don Countryside, 1917–1921." Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1994.</ref> In one example, an insurgent leader reported that 140 were executed in Bokovskaia, but later provided a different account, according to which only eight people in Bokovskaia were sentenced to death, and the authorities did not manage to carry these sentences out. This same historian emphasises he is "not seeking to downplay or dismiss very real executions by the Soviets".<ref name="mass terror">Peter Holquist. [https://web.archive.org/web/20091204190025/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/cmr_1252-6576_1997_num_38_1_2486 "Conduct merciless mass terror": decossackization on the Don, 1919]</ref> |
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Research by [[Pavel Polian]] from the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] on the subject of [[Forced settlements in the Soviet Union|forced migrations]] in Russia shows that more than 45,000 Cossacks were deported from the [[Terek Oblast|Terek]] province to Ukraine. Their land was distributed among pro-soviet Cossacks and Chechens.<ref>{{cite book|first=Pavel|last=Polian|title=Against Their Will: The History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR|publisher=[[Central European University Press]], 2004|isbn=978-963-9241-68-8|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8ktrYux1gTMC&pg=PT1&dq=pavel+polian#v=snippet&q=cossacks&f=false 60]|author-link=Pavel Polian|title-link=Against Their Will (book)|date=January 2004}}</ref> |
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===Joseph Stalin=== |
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{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)|Human rights in the Soviet Union|Population transfer in the Soviet Union|Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union|Great Purge|Gulag|Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin}} |
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Multiple documented instances of unnatural mass death occurred in the Soviet Union when it was under the rule of [[Joseph Stalin]]. The causes of these unnatural mass deaths include Union-wide famines in the early 1920s and early 1930s and deportations of ethnic minorities. On 26 April 1991 the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic, under its chairman [[Boris Yeltsin]], passed the law On the Rehabilitation of Repressed Peoples with Article 2 denouncing all mass deportations as "Stalin's policy of defamation and [[genocide]]."<ref name=perovic>{{cite book |title=Perovic, Jeronim (2018). From Conquest to Deportation: The North Caucasus under Russian Rule. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190934675. OCLC 1083957407. |pages=320 |isbn=9780190934675 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O19gDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA320|last1=Perovic |first1=Jeronim |date=June 2018 }}</ref> |
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====Holodomor==== |
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{{Main|Holodomor}} |
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[[File:GolodomorKharkiv.jpg|thumb|Starved peasants on a street in [[Kharkiv]], 1933.]] |
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During the [[Soviet famine of 1932–33]] that affected [[Ukraine]], [[Kazakhstan]] and some densely populated regions of [[Russia]], the highest scale of death was in Ukraine. The events there are referred to as the [[Holodomor]] and they are recognized as genocide by the governments of Australia, Argentina, Georgia, Estonia, Italy, Canada, Lithuania, Poland, the US and Hungary. The famine was caused by the confiscation of the whole 1933 harvest in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, the [[Kuban]] (a densely populated Russian region), and some other parts of the Soviet Union, leaving the peasants too little to feed themselves. As a result, an estimated ten million died, including three to seven million in Ukraine, one million in the North Caucasus and one million elsewhere.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Conquest | first = Robert | author-link = Robert Conquest | title = The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1986 | location = London | page = [https://archive.org/details/harvestofsorrows00conq/page/306 306] | isbn = 978-0-19-505180-3 | url = https://archive.org/details/harvestofsorrows00conq/page/306 }}</ref> According to the All-Union census of 1926-1937, the rural population in the North Caucasus decreased by 24%. In the Kuban alone, from November 1932 to the spring of 1933, the number of documented victims of famine was 62,000. According to other historians, the real death toll is many times higher.<ref>{{cite web |first1=E.V. Osadchenko Rudneva S.E. |title=HUNGER IN KUBAN 1932-1933 |url=http://www.natural-sciences.ru/ru/article/view?id=29574}}</ref> The self-identification of the Ukrainian population of Kuban decreased from 915,000 in 1926, to 150,000 in 1939.<ref>Ellman, Michael (2007). "Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 59 (4): 663–693. doi: 10.1080 / 09668130701291899http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/famine/ellman1933.pdf</ref> |
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In addition to the requisitioning of crops and livestock in Ukraine, ''all'' food was confiscated by Soviet authorities. Any and all aid and food was prohibited from entering the Ukrainian republic. Ukraine's [[Yuschenko]] administration recognized the Holodomor as an act of genocide and pushed international governments to acknowledge this.<ref name="BBC-06-11-24">{{cite news|first=Helen |last=Fawkes | url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6179818.stm | title= Legacy of famine divides Ukraine |publisher= BBC | newspaper = News | date= 24 November 2006}}</ref> This move was opposed by the Russian government and some members of the Ukrainian parliament, especially the [[Communist Party of Ukraine|Communists]]. A Ukrainian court found [[Joseph Stalin]], [[Vyacheslav Molotov]], [[Lazar Kaganovich]], [[Genrikh Yagoda]], [[Yakov Yakovlev]], [[Stanislav Kosior]], [[Pavel Postyshev]], [[Vlas Chubar]] and [[Mendel Khatayevich]] posthumously guilty of genocide on 13 January 2010.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.kyivpost.com/news/nation/detail/57679/|title=Sentence to Stalin, his comrades for organizing Holodomor takes effect in Ukraine|work=Kyiv Post|date=21 January 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123071649/http://www.kyivpost.com/news/nation/detail/57679/|archive-date=23 January 2011}}</ref> As of 2010, the Russian government's official position was that the famine took place, but was not an ethnic genocide;<ref name="BBC-06-11-24"/> former Ukrainian president [[Viktor Yanukovych]] supported this position.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.kyivpost.com/news/nation/detail/65137/ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101122202838/http://www.kyivpost.com/news/nation/detail/65137/ | archive-date =22 November 2010 | title = Yanukovych: Famine of 1930s was not genocide against Ukrainians | newspaper = [[Kyiv Post]] | date = 27 April 2010}}</ref> A ruling of 12 January 2010 by Kyiv's Court of Appeal declared the Soviet leaders guilty of "genocide against the Ukrainian national group in 1932–33 through the artificial creation of living conditions intended for its partial physical destruction."<ref name="Yanukovych violated law">{{Cite news |last=Interfax-Ukraine |title=Our Ukraine Party: Yanukovych violated law on Holodomor of 1932–1933 |newspaper=[[Kyiv Post]] |date=27 April 2010 |url=http://www.kyivpost.com/news/politics/detail/65188/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501041658/http://www.kyivpost.com/news/politics/detail/65188/ |archive-date=1 May 2010 |access-date=10 August 2010}}</ref> |
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====Kazakh genocide==== |
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{{Main|Kazakh famine of 1932–33}} |
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====Poles in the Soviet Union==== |
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{{Main|The Polish Operation of the NKVD (1937–1938)|Soviet invasion of Poland|Katyn massacre}} |
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[[Image:Katyn massacre 5.jpg|right|thumb|Photo from 1943 exhumation of mass grave of Polish officers killed by [[NKVD]] in the [[Katyn massacre|Katyn Forest]] in 1940]] |
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Several scholars write that the killing, on the basis of nationality and politics, of more than 120,000 ethnic Poles in the Soviet Union from 1937–38 was genocide.{{sfn|Sommer|2010|pp=417–18}} An [[NKVD]] official remarked that Poles living in the Soviet Union were to be "completely destroyed". Under [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] the NKVD's ''Polish operation'' soon arrested some 144,000, of whom 111,000 were shot and surviving family members deported to Kazakhstan.<ref>Norman M. Naimark, ''Stalin's Genocides'' (Princeton University 2010), NKVD at pp. 85–86 (arrested, shot), quote at 85.</ref><ref>Wendy Z. Goldman, ''Inventing the Enemy: Denunciation and Terror in Stalin's Russia'' (New York: Cambridge University Press 2011), p. 217.</ref><ref>[[Robert Conquest]], ''[[The Great Terror]]. A reassessment'' (Oxford University 1990), pp. 405–07. "The Purge affected not only the [[Communist Party of Poland|Polish Party]] members but the Polish population as a whole." Between 1926 and 1939 Poles in the Soviet Union decreased by 168,000.</ref> |
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In practice abandoning its 'official socialist' ideology of the "fraternity of peoples", the Soviets in the [[Great Purge|Great Terror]] of 1937–1938 targeted "a national group as an enemy of the state." During their ''Polish operation'' against party enemies the NKVD hit "Soviet Poles and other Soviet citizens associated with Poland, Polish culture, or Roman Catholicism. The Polish ethnic character of the operation quickly prevailed in practice... ." Stalin was pleased at "cleaning out this Polish filth." Among the several different nationalities targeted in the Great Terror (e.g., Latvians, Estonians, Finns, Belarusians), "ethnic Poles suffered more than any other group."<ref>Timothy Snyder, ''Bloodlands. Europe between Hitler and Stalin'' (New York: Basic Books 2010), pp. 93 (quote: "fraternity"); 94 (quote: "Soviet Poles"); 96 (Stalin quote); 103–04 (quote: "ethnic Poles"). In the ''Polish operation'' Snyder lists 143,810 arrested, 111,091 executed, mostly Poles (p. 103). Other operations targeted Latvians, Estonians, Finns (p. 104), and "the Belarusian intelligentsia" (p. 98).</ref> In 1940 the Soviets also killed thousands of [[Polish culture during World War II|Polish]] [[Polish prisoners-of-war in the Soviet Union after 1939|POW]]s, among about 22,000 Polish citizens shot in the [[Katyn massacre|Katyn forest]] and other places.<ref>Naimark, ''Stalin's Genocides'' (Princeton Univ. 2010): Katyn killings, pp. 91–92.</ref><ref>Norman Davies, ''Heart of Europe. The past in Poland's present'' (Oxford University 1984, 2001) pp. 58–59 (Katyn), p. 422 (Soviet President Gorbachev sent Polish President [[Wojciech Jaruzelski|Jaruzelski]] documentary evidence re Katyn "proving that the mass murder of c.25,000 Polish officers had been perpetrated by the Soviet NKVD in 1940").</ref> |
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====Chechens, Ingush, Balkars, Karachay, Kalmyks, Meskhetian Turks, and Volga Germans==== |
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{{Main|Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush|Deportation of the Karachays|Deportation of the Kalmyks|Deportation of the Balkars|Deportation of the Meskhetian Turks|Volga Germans#Deportation of the Volga Germans }} |
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The decree on the deportation of [[Volga Germans]] was published on 28 August 1941. Men aged 15–55 and later women between the ages of 16 and 45 were forced to work in the forests and mines of Siberia and Central Asia under conditions similar to those prevailing in the slave labor camps of the Gulag. The expulsion of the Germans from the Volga ended in September 1941. The number sent to Siberia and Kazakhstan totaled approximately 438,000. Together with 27,000 evicted in the same ethnic cleansing of the Stalingrad Oblast and 47,000 of the Saratov Oblast, the total number sent to forced internal exile was about 950,000, of which 30% died during deportation (285.000), and most never returned to the Volga Region. |
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On 26 February 2004 the plenary assembly of the European Parliament recognized the deportation of Chechen people during [[Operation Lentil (Caucasus)|Operation Lentil]] (23 February 1944), as an act of genocide, on the basis of the 1907 [[Hague Conventions (1907)|IV Hague Convention: The Laws and Customs of War on Land]] and the CPPCG.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unpo.org/article/438|title=Chechnya: European Parliament recognises the genocide of the Chechen People in 1944|work=Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization|date=27 February 2004|access-date=13 February 2016}}</ref> |
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The event began on 23 February 1944, when the entire population of [[Checheno-Ingushetia]] was summoned to local party buildings where they were told they were to be deported as punishment for their alleged collaboration with the Germans. The inhabitants were rounded up and imprisoned in Studebaker trucks and sent to Siberia.<ref>{{cite book|first=John B.|last=Dunlop|title=Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XWliQgAACAAJ|date=28 September 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-63184-6 |page=65}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gammer|2006|p=170}}</ref> |
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*Many times, resistance was met with slaughter, and in one such instance, in the [[aul]] of Khaibakh, about 700 people were locked in a barn and burned to death. By the next summer, Checheno-Ingushetia was dissolved; a number of Chechen and Ingush placenames were replaced with Russian ones; mosques and graveyards were destroyed, and a massive campaign to burn numerous historical Chechen texts was nearly complete.<ref>{{harvnb|Gammer|2006|p=182}}</ref> Many people from remote villages were executed per [[Lavrentiy Beria]]'s verbal order that any Chechen or Ingush deemed 'untransportable should be liquidated' on the spot.<ref>Burds, Jeffrey (2007). "The Soviet War against 'Fifth Columnists': The Case of Chechnya, 1942–4". Journal of Contemporary History. 42 (2): 267–314. doi:10.1177/0022009407075545. S2CID 159523593. p. 16-26</ref> |
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*Throughout the North Caucasus, about 700,000 (according to Dalkhat Ediev, 724297,<ref>Ediev, Dalkhat. ''Demograficheskie poteri deportirovannykh narodov SSSR'', Stavropol 2003, Table 109, p. 302</ref> of which the majority, 412,548, were Chechens, along with 96,327 [[Ingush people|Ingush]], 104,146 [[Kalmyk people|Kalmyks]], 39,407 [[Balkar]]s and 71,869 [[Karachai]]s). Many died on the trip, of exposure in Siberia's extremely harsh environment. The [[NKVD]], supplying the Russian perspective, gives the statistic of 144,704 killed in 1944–1948 alone (with a death rate of 23.5% for all groups). Estimates for Chechen deaths alone (excluding the NKVD statistic), range from about 170,000 to 200,000<ref>{{cite book|first=Aleksandr|last=Nekrich|title=The Punished Peoples: The Deportation and Fate of Soviet Minorities at the End of the Second World War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=02ZJPQAACAAJ|date=1981|publisher=W.W. Norton, Incorporated|isbn=978-0-393-00068-9}} |
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*{{cite book|first=John B.|last=Dunlop|title=Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P7SUvzGU67IC|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-63619-3 |pages= 62–70}}</ref><ref>Gammer.''The Lone Wolf and the Bear'', pp. 166–71</ref> thus ranging from over a third of the total Chechen population to nearly half being killed (of those that were deported, not counting those killed on the spot) in those 4 years alone. |
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====Deportations of Baltic people==== |
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[[File:AntanasSniečkus7-11-1970Vlns.jpg|right|thumb|[[Antanas Sniečkus]], the leader of the [[Communist Party of Lithuania]], supervised the mass deportations of Lithuanians.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roszkowski |first1=Wojciech |title=Biographical Dictionary of Central and Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1317475934 |page=2549 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RnKlDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2549}}</ref>]] |
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The [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|mass deportations]] of up to 17,500 [[Lithuanians]], 17,000 [[Latvians]] and 6,000 [[Estonians]] carried out by Stalin were the start of another genocide. Added to the killing of the [[Forest Brethren]] and the renewed [[Dekulakization]] that followed the Soviet [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1944)|reconquest]] of the Baltic states at the end of [[World War II]], the total number deported to Siberia was [[Soviet deportations from Lithuania|118,559 from Lithuania]], 52,541 from Latvia, and [[Soviet deportations from Estonia|32,540 from Estonia]].<ref name=Naimark>{{cite book|last=Naimark|first=Norman M.|title=Stalin's Genocides|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-15238-7|page=89|date=5 December 2011}}</ref> The high death rate of the deportees during their first few years in exile, caused by the failure of the Soviet authorities to provide them with suitable clothing and housing after they reached their destination, led some sources to label the affair an act of genocide.<ref>{{cite book|author=R. J. Rummel|title=Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocides and Mass Murders Since 1917|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sK5CJFpb2DAC|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-2750-8|year=1996}} |
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*J. Pohl, "Stalin's genocide against the 'Repressed Peoples'", ''Journal of Genocide Research'', Volume 2, Number 2, 1 June 2000, pp. 267–93 |
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*Lauri Mälksoo, "Soviet Genocide? Communist Mass Deportations in the Baltic States and International Law", ''Leiden Journal of International Law'' (2001), 14: pp. 757–87 Cambridge University Press</ref> Based on the [[Martens Clause]] and the principles of the [[Nuremberg Charter]], the [[European Court of Human Rights]] held that the [[March deportation]] constituted a [[crime against humanity]].<ref>[[Postimees]] 31 March 2009: [http://arvamus.postimees.ee/100868/martin-arpo-kommunismiaja-kuritegude-tee-euroopa-inimoiguste-kohtuni?id=100868 Martin Arpo: kommunismiaja kuritegude tee Euroopa Inimõiguste Kohtuni]</ref><ref name="EU_Court1">{{cite web|url=http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/impu/kolk.html|title=ECHR decision on the case Kolk and Kislyiy v. Estonia: Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to Crimes against Humanity|publisher=derechos.org|work=Council of Europe|date=17 January 2006|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref> According to Erwin Oberlander, these deportations are a crime against humanity, rather than genocide.<ref name=Oberlander>{{cite book|last=Oberlander|first=Erwin|title=Forgotten Pages in Baltic History: Diversity and Inclusion|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-9042033153|pages=253–54|editor=Martyn Housden, David James Smith|date= 2011}}</ref> |
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[[Lithuania]] began holding trials for genocide in 1997. [[Latvia]] and [[Estonia]] followed in 1998.<ref name=Travis>{{cite book|last=Travis|first=Hannibal|title=Ethnonationalism, Genocide, and the United Nations|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-53125-2|page=82|date=2013}}</ref> Latvia has since convicted four security officers and in 2003 it sentenced a former [[KGB]] agent to five years in prison. Estonia tried and convicted ten men and is investigating others. In Lithuania by 2004 23 cases were before the courts, but as of the end of the year none had been convicted.<ref name=Budryte>{{cite book|last=Budryte|first=Dovile|title=Taming Nationalism? Political Community Building in the Post-Soviet Baltic States|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0-7546-4281-7|page=182|year= 2005}}</ref> |
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In 2007 Estonia charged Arnold Meri (then 88 years old), a former Soviet Communist Party official and highly decorated former Red Army soldier, with genocide. Shortly after the trial opened, it was suspended because of Meri's frail health and then abandoned when he died.<ref>{{Cite news |author=BBC staff|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6959632.stm |work=BBC News |title=Estonian man on genocide charge |date=23 August 2007}}</ref> A memorial in Vilnius, Lithuania, is dedicated to genocidal victims of Stalin and Hitler,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/odlin1/Graphics/lith/lithgen.htm|title=Genocide in Lithuania|publisher=people.cohums.ohio-state.edu|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060911160640/http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/odlin1/Graphics/lith/lithgen.htm|archive-date=11 September 2006}}{{better source needed|date=March 2012}}<!-- Not clear if this monument states that the deportations were a genocide --></ref> and the [[Museum of Genocide Victims]] in Lithuania, which opened on 14 October 1992 in the former KGB headquarters, chronicles the imprisonment and deportation of [[Lithuanians]].<ref>{{cite web|first=Eugenijus|last=Peikštenis|url=http://genocid.lt/muziejus/en/695/c/|title=Lithuanian Museum of Genocide Victims|work=Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania|access-date=26 November 2016}}</ref> |
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====Crimean Tatars==== |
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{{main|Deportation of the Crimean Tatars}} |
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[[File:Uskut.jpg|right|thumb|The empty Crimean Tatar village Üsküt, near [[Alushta]], photo taken 1945 after the complete deportation of its inhabitants]] |
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The ethnic cleansing<ref>{{cite book|last1=Levene|first1=Mark|title=Annihilation: Volume II: The European Rimlands 1939–1953|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199683048|page=333}}</ref><ref name=naimark104>Naimark 2002, p. 104</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kohl|first1=Philip L.|last2=Kozelsky|first2=Mara|last3=Ben-Yehuda|first3=Nachman|title=Selective Remembrances: Archaeology in the Construction, Commemoration, and Consecration of National Pasts|date=2008|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226450643|page=92}}</ref> and [[deportation of the Crimean Tatars]] from [[Crimea]] was ordered by [[Joseph Stalin]] as a form of [[collective punishment]] for alleged collaboration with the Nazi occupation regime in [[Taurida Subdistrict]] during 1942–1943. The state-organized removal is known as the ''Sürgünlik'' in [[Crimean Tatar language|Crimean Tatar]]. A total of more than 230,000 people were deported (the entire ethnic Crimean Tatar population), of which more than 100,000 died from starvation or disease. |
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Many activists, politicians, scholars and historians go even further and consider this deportation a crime of [[genocide]].{{sfn|Tatz|Higgins|2016|p=28}}{{sfn|Uehling|2015|p=3}}{{sfn|Blank|2015|p=18}}{{sfn|Legters|1992|p=104}} Professor Lyman H. Legters argued that the Soviet penal system, combined with its resettlement policies, should count as genocidal since the sentences were borne most heavily specifically on certain ethnic groups, and that a relocation of these ethnic groups, whose survival depends on ties to its particular homeland, "had a genocidal effect remediable only by restoration of the group to its homeland".{{sfn|Legters|1992|p=104}} Soviet dissidents Ilya Gabay{{sfn|Fisher|2014|p=150}} and [[Pyotr Grigorenko]]{{sfn|Allworth|1998|p=216}} both classified the event as a genocide. Historian Timothy Snyder included it in a list of Soviet policies that "meet the standard of genocide."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2010/oct/05/holocaust-secondworldwar|title=The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact|last=Snyder|first=Timothy|date=2010-10-05|website=the Guardian|access-date=2018-08-06}}</ref> |
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On 12 December 2015, the [[Ukrainian Parliament]] issued a resolution recognizing this event as genocide and established 18 May as the "Day of Remembrance for the victims of the Crimean Tatar genocide."<ref>[[#Radio Free Europe|Radio Free Europe, 21 January 2016]]</ref> The [[Saeima|parliament of Latvia]] recognized the event as an act of genocide on 9 May 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/latvian-lawmakers-label-1944-deportation-of-crimean-tatars-as-act-of-genocide/29933467.html|title=Latvian Lawmakers Label 1944 Deportation Of Crimean Tatars As Act Of Genocide|date=2019-05-09|website=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|access-date=2019-05-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.saeima.lv/lv/aktualitates/saeimas-zinas/27934-saeima-pienem-pazinojumu-par-krimas-tataru-deportaciju-75-gadadienu-atzistot-notikuso-par-genocidu|title=Saeima pieņem paziņojumu par Krimas tatāru deportāciju 75.gadadienu, atzīstot notikušo par genocīdu|date=2019-05-09|website=saeima.lv|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref> The [[Seimas|Parliament of Lithuania]] did the same on 6 June 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baltictimes.com/lithuanian_parliament_recognizes_soviet_crimes_against_crimean_tatars_as_genocide/|title=Lithuanian parliament recognizes Soviet crimes against Crimean Tatars as genocide|date=2019-06-06|website=The Baltic Times|access-date=2019-06-06}}</ref> Canadian Parliament passed a motion on 10 June 2019, recognizing the Crimean Tatar deportation of 1944 (Sürgünlik) as a genocide perpetrated by Soviet dictator Stalin, designating 18 May to be a day of remembrance.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.facebook.com/BorysWrz/posts/earlier-today-delivering-the-good-news-to-iconic-crimean-tatar-leader-mustafa-dz/10156820037778558/ |title = Borys Wrzesnewskyj}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.ukrweekly.com/uwwp/foreign-affairs-committee-passes-motion-by-wrzesnewskyj-on-crimean-tatar-genocide/ |title = Foreign Affairs Committee passes motion by Wrzesnewskyj on Crimean Tatar genocide}}</ref> |
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===Japan=== |
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{{Main|Nanjing Massacre|Japanese war crimes}} |
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[[File:Nanking bodies 1937.jpg|thumb|The corpses of massacred victims with a Japanese soldier standing nearby, [[Nanjing]], 1937]] |
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During the [[Nanjing Massacre]] which was committed during the early months of the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], the Japanese committed mass killings against the [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] population of the city, during which up to 300,000 people were killed. Bradley Campbell described the Nanjing Massacre as a genocide, because the Chinese were unilaterally killed en masse by the Japanese during the aftermath of the [[Battle of Nanking|battle for the city]], despite its successful and certain outcome.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Campbell | first = Bradley | title = Genocide as social control | journal = Sociological Theory |date=June 2009 | volume = 27 | issue = 2 | page = 154 | jstor = 40376129 | quote = Also, genocide may occur in the aftermath of warfare when mass killings continue after the outcome of a battle or a war has been decided. For instance, after the Chinese city of [[Nanking]] was occupied by the Japanese in December 1937, Japanese soldiers massacred over 250,000 residents of the city. | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01341.x | s2cid = 143902886 }}</ref> |
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====Philippines (Japanese era)==== |
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{{Main|Japanese occupation of the Philippines}} |
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Various atrocities were also committed during the Japanese colonial era such as the [[Manila massacre]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1061334/p2fb-remembering-the-filipino-comfort-women|title=Remembering the Filipino comfort women|first=Cody|last=Cepeda|date=December 8, 2018|website=INQUIRER.net}}</ref> |
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===Dominican Republic=== |
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In 1937, Dominican dictator [[Rafael Trujillo]] ordered the execution of Haitians who were living in the [[Dominican Republic]]. The [[Parsley massacre]], known in the Dominican Republic as "El Corte" (the Cutting), lasted approximately five days. The name comes from claims that soldiers used a [[Shibboleth]] to identify suspected Haitians, showing them [[parsley]] leaves and asking them to pronounce the name of the plant. Spanish-speaking Dominicans would be able to pronounce the Spanish word for parsley ("perejil") correctly, whereas native [[Haitian Creole]] speakers would struggle to [[Dental and alveolar flaps|pronounce the 'r' adequately]]. Those who mispronounced "perejil" were assumed to be Haitian and slaughtered. The massacre resulted in the deaths of 20,000 to 30,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/parsley-massacre-genocide-still-haunts-haiti-dominican-relations-846773 |title=Parsley Massacre: The Genocide That Still Haunts Haiti-Dominican Relations |publisher=Ibtimes.com |date=15 October 2012 |access-date=11 March 2014}}</ref> |
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===Republic of China and Tibet=== |
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In the 1930s, the [[Kuomintang]]'s [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] government supported Muslim [[warlord]] [[Ma Bufang]] when he launched seven expeditions into [[Golog]], causing the deaths of thousands of [[Tibet]]ans.<ref name="Uradyn Erden Bulag 2002 54">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=g3C2B9oXVbQC&q=genocidal|title=Dilemmas The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity | first = Uradyn Erden | last = Bulag|year= 2002| publisher= Rowman & Littlefield | page = 54 |isbn=978-0-7425-1144-6|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> Uradyn Erden Bulag called the events that followed genocidal, while David Goodman called them ethnic cleansing. One Tibetan counted the number of times Ma attacked him, remembering the seventh attack that made life impossible.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RhxXAAAAMAAJ&q=the+warlord+Ma+Pu-fang+had+come+for+the+seventh+time+to+massacre+the+people,+life+became+almost+impossible+for+us |title= China reconstructs |volume=10 |first=Fu Li |last=Hui |year=1961 |publisher=China Welfare Institute |page=16 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> Ma was anti-communist and he and his army wiped out many Tibetans in northeast and eastern [[Qinghai]] and destroyed [[Tibetan Buddhist]] Temples.<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DbkfQATHikQC&q=ma+bufang+ethnic+cleansing+tibetans&pg=PA72 |title=China's campaign to "Open up the West": national, provincial, and local perspectives |first =David SG |last=Goodman |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=72 |isbn=978-0-521-61349-1|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QVSVux0wIW0C&q=hui+traders+tibetans&pg=PA75 |title=The other global city |first =Shail |last=Mayaram |year=2009 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |place=US |pages=76–7 |isbn=978-0-415-99194-0 |access-date=30 July 2010}}</ref> Ma also patronized the [[Panchen Lama]], who was exiled from Tibet by the [[Dalai Lama]]'s government. |
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===Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe=== |
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{{Main|The Holocaust|Nazi eugenics|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Nazi crimes against the Polish nation|Generalplan Ost|Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust|Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany}} |
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{{further|German war crimes}} |
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[[File:WW2-Holocaust-Europe.png|thumb|Major deportation routes to the [[Extermination camps in the Holocaust|extermination camps]] in Europe.]] |
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==== The Holocaust ==== |
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{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; font-size:100%" |
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|- |
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!Year!!Jews killed<ref>{{Harvnb|Hilberg|2003|p=1322}}.</ref> |
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|- |
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|1933–1940 |
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|align="right"|under 100,000 |
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|- |
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|1941 |
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|align="right"|1,100,000 |
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|- |
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|1942 |
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|align="right"|2,700,000 |
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|- |
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|1943 |
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|align="right"|500,000 |
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|- |
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|1944 |
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|align="right"|600,000 |
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|- |
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|1945 |
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|align="right"|100,000 |
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|} |
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{{main|The Holocaust}} |
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{{further|History of the Jews during World War II}} |
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[[The Holocaust]] is widely recognized as a genocide. The term "genocide" appeared in the [[Nuremberg Trials#Trial|indictment of 24 German leaders]]. Count three of the indictment stated that all the defendants had "conducted deliberate and systematic genocide – namely, the extermination of racial and national groups...."<ref name="Monroe2011">{{cite book|first=Kristen R. |last=Monroe|title=Ethics in an Age of Terror and Genocide: Identity and Moral Choice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfWCEiDUVo0C&pg=PA10|date= 2011|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-15143-4|pages=10–}}</ref> |
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The term "Holocaust" (derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''hólos'', "whole" and ''kaustós'', "burnt") is often used to describe the killing of approximately six million [[History of the Jews in Europe|European]] [[Jews]], as part of a program of deliberate extermination which was planned and executed by the [[Nazi Party|National Socialist German Workers Party]] in Germany, which was led by [[Adolf Hitler]].{{sfn|Niewyk|Nicosia|2000|p=45}}<ref>Also see "The Holocaust", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2007: "the systematic state-sponsored killing of six million Jewish men, women and children, and millions of others, by Germany and its collaborators during [[World War II]]. The Germans called this 'the final solution to the Jewish question'".</ref> Many scholars do not include other groups in the definition of the Holocaust, because they choose to limit it to the genocide of the Jews.<ref name=def>{{Citation| last = Weissman | first = Gary | title = Fantasies of Witnessing: Postwar Attempts to Experience the Holocaust | publisher = Cornell University Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-8014-4253-7 | page = [https://archive.org/details/fantasiesofwitne00weis/page/94 94] | quote = Kren illustrates his point with his reference to the ''Kommissararbefehl''. 'Should the (strikingly unreported) systematic mass starvation of Soviet prisoners of war be included in the Holocaust?' he asks. Many scholars would answer no, maintaining that 'the Holocaust' should strictly refer to those events which involved the systematic killing of the Jews'. | url = https://archive.org/details/fantasiesofwitne00weis/page/94 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | title = The Holocaust: Definition and Preliminary Discussion | publisher = [[Yad Vashem]] | quote = The Holocaust, as presented in this resource center, is defined as the sum total of all anti-Jewish actions carried out by the German regime between 1933 and 1945: from stripping the German Jews of their legal and economic status in the 1930s, to segregating and starving Jews in the various occupied countries, to the murder of close to six million Jews in Europe. The Holocaust is part of a broader aggregate of acts of oppression and murder of various ethnic and political groups in Europe by the Germans.}}</ref>{{sfn|Niewyk|Nicosia|2000|p=45}}<ref>{{Citation | contribution = Holocaust | title = Encyclopædia Britannica | year = 2007 | quote = the systematic state-sponsored killing of six million Jewish men, women, and children and millions of others by Germany and its collaborators during World War II. The Germans called this "the final solution to the Jewish question."}} |
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{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761559508/Holocaust.html|title=Holocaust|encyclopedia=Encarta|date=1993|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5kwpf3JYp?url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761559508/Holocaust.html|archive-date=31 October 2009|quote=Holocaust, the almost complete destruction of Jews in Europe by Germany and its collaborators during World War II (1939–1945). The leadership of Germany ordered the extermination of 5.6 million to 5.9 million Jews (see National Socialism). Jews often refer to the Holocaust as the Shoah (from the Hebrew word for "catastrophe" or "total destruction").}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Paulson |first=Steve |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/genocide/holocaust_overview_01.shtml|title=A View of the Holocaust |publisher=BBC.co.uk |quote=The Holocaust was the Germans' assault on the Jews between 1933 and 1945. It culminated in what the Germans called the 'Final Solution of the Jewish Question in Europe', in which six million Jews were murdered.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.auschwitz.dk/|contribution=The Holocaust|title=Auschwitz|place=[[Denmark|DK]]|quote=The Holocaust was the systematic annihilation of six million Jews by the Germans during World War 2.}} |
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{{Citation | url = http://www.chgs.umn.edu/educational/edResource/definition.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090116174139/http://www.chgs.umn.edu/educational/edResource/definition.html | archive-date =16 January 2009 | contribution = Holocaust | type = definition | title = Encyclopedia of the Holocaust | publisher = Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies | quote = (Heb., sho'ah). In the 1950s the term came to be applied primarily to the destruction of the Jews of Europe under the German regime, and it is also employed in order to describe the annihilation of other groups of people during [[World War II]]. The mass extermination of Jews has become the archetype of GENOCIDE, and the terms sho'ah and 'holocaust' have become linked to the attempt by the German state to destroy European Jewry during World War II... One of the first to use the term in this historical perspective was the Jerusalem historian BenZion Dinur (Dinaburg), who, in the spring of 1942, stated that the Holocaust was a 'catastrophe' that symbolized the unique situation of the Jewish people among the nations of the world.}} |
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{{Citation | publisher = The Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies | title = List of definitions | contribution = Holocaust | quote = A term for the state-sponsored, systematic persecution and annihilation of European Jewry by Germany and its collaborators between 1933 and 1945.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/holocaust | contribution = The Holocaust | title = Compact Oxford English Dictionary | quote = the mass murder of Jews under the German regime in World War II. }} |
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{{Citation | title = The 33rd Annual Scholars' Conference on the Holocaust and the Churches | type = definition | contribution = The Holocaust | quote = the German attempt to annihilate European Jewry}}, cited in {{Citation | last = Hancock | first = Ian | url = http://www.radoc.net:8088/RADOC-3-PORR.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040710194912/http://radoc.net:8088/RADOC-3-PORR.htm | archive-date =10 July 2004 |contribution=Romanies and the Holocaust: A Reevaluation and an Overview | editor-last = Stone | editor-first = Dan | title = The Historiography of the Holocaust | publisher = Palgrave-Macmillan | place = New York | year = 2004 | pages = 383–96}} |
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{{Citation | author-link = Yehuda Bauer| last = Bauer | first = Yehuda | title = Rethinking the Holocaust | place = New Haven | publisher = Yale University Press | year = 2001 | page = 10}} |
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{{Citation | author-link = Lucy Dawidowicz| last = Dawidowicz | first = Lucy | title = The War Against the Jews: 1933–1945 | publisher = Bantam | year = 1986 | page = xxxvii | quote = 'The Holocaust' is the term that Jews themselves have chosen to describe their fate during World War II.}}</ref> |
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[[File:Einsatzgruppe shooting.jpg|thumb|left|German police shooting women and children from the [[Mizocz Ghetto]], 14 October 1942]] |
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The Holocaust was accomplished in stages. [[Nuremberg Laws|Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society]] was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II. [[Nazi concentration camps|Concentration camps]] were established in which inmates were used as slave laborers until they died. When [[Nazi Germany]] conquered new territory in Eastern Europe, specialized units which were called [[Einsatzgruppen]] murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6724481.stm|title=Ukrainian mass Jewish grave found|agency=BBC News|date=5 June 2007|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref> Jews and [[Romani people]] were crammed into [[Ghettos in occupied Europe 1939–1944|ghettos]] before being transported in box cars by freight train to [[extermination camp]]s where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were killed in [[gas chamber]]s. Every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the [[mass murder]], turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."<ref name="BerenbaumKramer2005">{{cite book|first1=Michael|last1=Berenbaum|first2=Arnold|last2=Kramer|author3=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|title=The world must know: the history of the Holocaust as told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqMWAQAAIAAJ|year= 2005|publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|isbn=978-0-8018-8358-3 |page=103}}</ref> |
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{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-right:2em; font-size:100%" |
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|- |
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!Extermination Camp!!Estimate of<br> number killed!!Ref |
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|- |
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|[[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz-Birkenau]] |
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|align="right"|1,000,000||<ref name=yvsau>{{cite web|url=http://auschwitz.org/en/history/the-number-of-victims/|title=The Number of victims|work=Memorial and Museum Auschwitz-Birkenau|access-date=18 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Piper|1998|p=62}}.</ref> |
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|- |
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|[[Treblinka]] |
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|align="right"|870,000||<ref name=yvstr>[http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%205886.pdf Treblinka], Yad Vashem.</ref> |
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|- |
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|[[Belzec extermination camp|Belzec]] |
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|align="right"|600,000||<ref name=yvsbe>[http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%205981.pdf Belzec], Yad Vashem.</ref> |
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|- |
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|[[Majdanek]] |
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|align="right"|79,000–235,000||<ref name=yvsmaj>{{cite web|url=http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%206622.pdf|title=Majdanek|publisher=The Holocaust Resource Center, Yad Vashem Holocaust Studies School|access-date=5 February 2017}}</ref><ref name="Reszka">{{cite web|url=http://en.auschwitz.org.pl/m/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=44&Itemid=8|title=Majdanek Victims Enumerated. Changes in the history textbooks?|access-date=13 April 2010|last=Reszka|first=Paweł|date=23 December 2005|work=[[Gazeta Wyborcza]]|publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106112513/http://en.auschwitz.org.pl/m/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=44&Itemid=8|archive-date=6 November 2011}}</ref> |
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|- |
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|[[Chełmno]] |
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|align="right"|320,000||<ref name=yvsch>[http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%202494.pdf Chelmno], Yad Vashem.</ref> |
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|- |
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|[[Sobibór extermination camp|Sobibór]] |
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|align="right"|250,000||<ref name=yvsso>[http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%206030.pdf Sobibor], Yad Vashem.</ref> |
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|} |
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{|class="sortable wikitable" style="float:right; clear:right; text-align:right; margin-left:1em; font-size:100%" |
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|+The following figures by [[Lucy Dawidowicz]] show the annihilation of the Jewish population of Europe by (pre-war) country:<ref name="DawidowiczWAJ"/> |
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!Country |
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!Estimated<br>Pre-War<br>Jewish<br>population |
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!Estimated<br>killed |
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!Percent<br>killed |
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|- |
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|[[Poland]] |
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|3,300,000 |
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|3,000,000 |
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|90 |
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|- |
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|[[Baltic countries]] |
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|253,000 |
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|228,000 |
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|90 |
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|- |
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|[[Germany]] and [[Austria]] |
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|240,000 |
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|210,000 |
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|87.5 |
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|- |
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|[[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]] |
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|90,000 |
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|80,000 |
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|89 |
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|- |
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|[[Slovakia]] |
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|90,000 |
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|75,000 |
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|83 |
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|- |
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|[[Greece]] |
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|70,000 |
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|54,000 |
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|77 |
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|- |
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|[[Netherlands]] |
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|140,000 |
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|105,000 |
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|75 |
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|- |
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|[[Hungary]] |
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|650,000 |
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|450,000 |
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|70 |
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|- |
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|[[Byelorussian SSR]] |
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|375,000 |
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|245,000 |
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|65 |
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|- |
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|[[Ukrainian SSR]] |
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|1,500,000 |
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|900,000 |
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|60 |
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|- |
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|[[Belgium]] |
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|65,000 |
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|40,000 |
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|60 |
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|- |
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|[[Yugoslavia]] |
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|43,000 |
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|26,000 |
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|60 |
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|- |
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|[[Romania]] |
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|600,000 |
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|300,000 |
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|50 |
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|- |
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|[[Norway]] |
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|2,173 |
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|890 |
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|41 |
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|- |
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|[[France]] |
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|350,000 |
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|90,000 |
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|26 |
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|- |
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|[[Bulgaria]] |
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|64,000 |
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|14,000 |
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|22 |
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|- |
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|[[Italy]] |
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|40,000 |
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|8,000 |
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|20 |
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|- |
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|[[Luxembourg]] |
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|5,000 |
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|1,000 |
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|20 |
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|- |
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|[[Russian SFSR]] |
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|975,000 |
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|107,000 |
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|11 |
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|- |
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|[[Denmark]] |
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|8,000 |
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|52 |
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|<1 |
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|- class="sortbottom" |
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|'''Total''' |
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|'''8,861,800''' |
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|'''5,933,900''' |
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|'''67''' |
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|} |
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This gives a total of over 3.8 million; of these, 80–90% were estimated to be Jews. These seven camps thus accounted for half the total number of Jews killed in the entire Nazi Holocaust. Virtually the entire Jewish population of Poland died in these camps.<ref name="DawidowiczWAJ"/> |
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Since 1945, the most commonly cited figure for the total number of Jews killed has been six million. The [[Yad Vashem]] Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority in [[Jerusalem]], writes that there is no precise figure for the number of Jews killed,<ref>{{cite web|title=The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names|url=http://yvng.yadvashem.org/index.html?language=en|publisher=Yad Vashem|access-date=8 November 2013}}</ref> but it has been able to find documentation of more than three million names of Jewish victims killed,<ref name="names-documentation">{{cite web|title=The Holocaust: Tracing Lost Family Members|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/tracing.html|work=JVL|access-date=8 November 2013}}</ref> which it displays at its visitors center. The figure most commonly used is the six million attributed to Adolf Eichmann, a senior SS official.<ref>[[Wilhelm Höttl]], an SS officer and a Doctor of History, testified at the [[Nuremberg Trials]] and Eichmann's trial that at a meeting he had with Eichmann in Budapest in late August 1944, "Eichmann ... told me that, according to his information, some 6,000,000 (six million) Jews had perished until then – 4,000,000 (four million) in extermination camps and the remaining 2,000,000 (two million) through shooting by the Operations Units and other causes, such as disease, etc."[http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/e/eichmann-adolf/transcripts/Testimony-Abroad/Wilhelm_Hoettl-07.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605090823/http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/e/eichmann-adolf/transcripts/Testimony-Abroad/Wilhelm_Hoettl-07.html |date=5 June 2013 }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040607002323/http://david-kahn.com/articles-secret-history-author-front.htm] [http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/tgmwc-02/tgmwc-02-20-05.shtml]</ref> |
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[[File:Auschwitz Resistance 280 cropped.jpg|thumb|250px|Members of the ''[[Sonderkommando]]'' burn corpses in the fire pits at Auschwitz II-Birkenau.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://auschwitz.org/en/|title=Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum in Oświęcim, Poland|work=auschwitz.org|access-date=17 April 2016}}</ref>]] |
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There were about eight to ten million Jews in the territories controlled directly or indirectly by Germany (the uncertainty arises from the lack of knowledge about how many Jews there were in the Soviet Union). The six million killed in the Holocaust thus represent 60 to 75 percent of these Jews. Of Poland's 3.3 million Jews, about 90 percent were killed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Responses to common Holocaust-denial claims|url=http://archive.adl.org/holocaust/response.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222013622/http://archive.adl.org/holocaust/response.asp|archive-date=22 February 2013 |publisher=ADL|access-date=8 November 2013}}</ref> The same proportion were killed in [[Latvia]] and Lithuania, but most of [[Estonia]]'s Jews were evacuated in time. Of the 750,000 Jews in Germany and Austria in 1933, only about a quarter survived. Although many German Jews emigrated before 1939, the majority of these fled to [[Czechoslovakia]], France or the Netherlands, from where they were later deported to their deaths. |
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In Czechoslovakia, Greece, the Netherlands, and Yugoslavia (whose territories were divided into the German-Italian Puppet state [[Independent State of Croatia]] run by the [[Ustaše]] and the German Occupied [[Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia]] governed by [[Milan Nedić]]’s [[Government of National Salvation]]), over 70 percent were killed. In The Independent State of Croatia, Ustaše and the German Army carried out [[The Holocaust in Croatia|extermination of Jews as well as Roma]] in Ustaše-run concentration camps like [[Jasenovac]], while a considerable number of Jews were rounded up by the Ustaše and turned over to the Germans for extermination in Nazi Germany. In the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia, the German Army carried out the [[The Holocaust in Serbia|extermination of Jews as well as Roma]] with support and assistance from Milan Nedić's regime and [[Dimitrije Ljotić]]'s fascist organization [[Yugoslav National Movement]] (Zbor), who had joint control over the [[Banjica concentration camp]] with the German Army in Belgrade.<ref name=Glenny502>Glenny, Misha (2000) ''The Balkans: Nationalism, War and the Great Powers, 1804-1999''. New York: Viking. p.502 {{isbn|9780670853380}} Quote: "The Nazis were assisted by several thousand ethnic Germans as well as by supporters of Dijmitrje Ljotic's Yugoslav fascist movement, Zbor, and General Milan Nedic's quisling administration. But the main Eengine of extermination was the regular army. The destruction of the [[History of the Jews in Serbia|Serbian Jews]] gives the lie to ''Wehrmacht'' claims that it took no part in the genocidal programmes of the Nazis. Indeed, General Bohme and his men in German-occupied Serbia planned and carried out the murder of over 20,000 Jews and Gypsies without any prompting from Berlin"</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.yadvashem.org/education/educational-materials/books/suffering.html |title=The Suffering of the Roma in Serbia during the Holocaust |publisher=yadvashem.org |author=Richelle Budd Caplan}}</ref> 50 to 70 percent were killed in [[Romania]], Belgium and Hungary. It is likely that a similar proportion were killed in [[Belarus]] and Ukraine, but these figures are less certain. Countries with notably lower proportions of deaths include [[Bulgaria]], Denmark, France, Italy, and [[Shoah in Norway|Norway]]. [[Albania]] was the only country occupied by Germany that had a significantly larger Jewish population in 1945 than in 1939. About two hundred native Jews and over a thousand refugees were provided with false documents, hidden when necessary, and generally treated as honored guests in a country whose population was roughly 60% Muslim.<ref>Shoah Research Center;– Albania [http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%205725.pdf] The Jews of Albania during the Zogist and Second World War Periods [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927231247/http://www.heimat.de/home/illyria/i.php3?s=e&p=2004_01_09_fisher_jews_in_albania] and see also Norman H. Gershman's book Besa: Muslims Who Saved Jews in World War II – for reviews etc [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0815609345] (all consulted 24 June 2010)</ref> Additionally, Japan, as an Axis member, had its own unique response to German policies regarding Jews; see [[Shanghai Ghetto]]. |
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In addition to those who died in extermination camps, another 800,000 to one million Jews were killed by the ''Einsatzgruppen'' in the occupied Soviet territories (an approximate figure, since the ''Einsatzgruppen'' killings were frequently undocumented).<ref name="isbn0-375-40900-9">{{cite book|author=Rhodes, Richard|title=Masters of death: the SS-Einsatzgruppen and the invention of the Holocaust|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|year=2002|isbn=978-0-375-40900-4|url=https://archive.org/details/mastersofdeathss00rhod}}</ref> Many more died through execution or of disease and malnutrition in the ghettos of Poland before they could be deported. |
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[[File:Holocaustdeathtoll%.png|thumb|right|[[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] [[List of genocides by death toll#List of genocides|death toll]] as a percentage of the total [[History of the Jews in Europe|pre-war Jewish population in Europe]]]] |
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In the 1990s, the opening of government archives in Eastern Europe resulted in the adjustment of the death tolls published in the pioneering work by Hilberg, Dawidowicz and Gilbert (e.g. compare Gilbert's estimation of two million deaths in Auschwitz-Birkenau with the updated figure of one million in the Extermination Camp data box). As pointed out above, Wolfgang Benz has been carrying out work on the more recent data. He concluded in 1999: |
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{{quote|The goal of annihilating all of the Jews of Europe, as it was proclaimed at the conference in the villa Am Grossen Wannsee in January 1942, was not reached. Yet the six million murder victims make the holocaust a unique crime in the history of mankind. The number of victims—and with certainty the following represent the minimum number in each case—cannot express that adequately. Numbers are just too abstract. However they must be stated in order to make clear the dimension of the genocide: 165,000 Jews from Germany, 65,000 from Austria, 32,000 from France and Belgium, more than 100,000 from the Netherlands, 60,000 from Greece, the same number from Yugoslavia, more than 140,000 from Czechoslovakia, half a million from Hungary, 2.2 million from the Soviet Union, and 2.7 million from Poland. To these numbers must be added all those killed in the pogroms and massacres in Romania and Transitrien (over 200,000) and the deported and murdered Jews from Albania and Norway, Denmark and Italy, from Luxembourg and Bulgaria.|Benz, Wolfgang ''The Holocaust: A German Historian Examines the Genocide''<ref>{{cite book|author=Benz, Wolfgang|title=The Holocaust: A German Historian Examines the Genocide|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|year=1999|isbn=978-0-231-11214-7 |pages=152–53}}</ref>}} |
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====Non-Jewish victims==== |
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{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; font-size:80%" |
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|- |
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!Victims!!Killed!!Source |
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|- |
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|Jews |
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|align="right"|5.93 million|| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="DawidowiczWAJ">[[Lucy Dawidowicz|Dawidowicz, Lucy]]. ''The War Against the Jews'', Bantam, 1986.p. 403</ref> |
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|- |
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|Soviet POWs |
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|align="right"|2–3 million|| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name = "Berenbaum 2005 125">{{Harvnb|Berenbaum|2005|p=125}}.</ref> |
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|- |
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|Ethnic Poles |
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|align="right"|1.8–2 million|| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/2000926-Poles.pdf|title=Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era|work=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|access-date=2 March 2016}} 1.8–1.9 million non-Jewish Polish citizens are estimated to have died as a result of the Nazi occupation and the war. Estimates are from Polish scholar, Franciszek Piper, the chief historian at Auschwitz.</ref><ref name=PolandWorldWarIIcasualties>Piotrowski, Tadeusz. [http://www.projectinposterum.org/docs/poland_WWII_casualties.htm "Project InPosterum: Poland WWII Casualties"]. Retrieved 15 March 2007; and [[Czesław Łuczak|Łuczak, Czesław]]. "Szanse i trudności bilansu demograficznego Polski w latach 1939–1945", ''Dzieje Najnowsze'', issue 1994/2.</ref> |
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|- |
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|Serbs |
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|align="right"|200,000—500,000|| style="text-align:center;"|{{sfn|Yeomans|2013|p=18}} |
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|- |
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|Disabled |
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|align="right"|270,000|| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="holocaust-education.dk">{{cite web|first1=Peter|last1=Vogelsang|first2=Brian B. M.|last2=Larsen|url=http://www.holocaust-education.dk/baggrund/eutanasi.asp|title=Euthanasia – the 'mercy killing' of disabled people in Germany|publisher=The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies|date=2002|access-date=13 February 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303081500/http://www.holocaust-education.dk/baggrund/eutanasi.asp|archive-date=3 March 2016|df=dmy}}</ref> |
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|- |
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|Romani |
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|align="right"|90,000–220,000|| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name = "USHMM Roma">[http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005219 "Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies)"]. ''Holocaust Encyclopedia''. [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]]. Retrieved 27 September 2012. The USHMM places the scholarly estimates at 220,000–500,000. According to [[#CITEREFBerenbaum2005|Berenbaum 2005]], p. 126, "serious scholars estimate that between 90,000 and 220,000 were killed under German rule."</ref><ref name="383–96">{{Harvnb|Hancock|2004|pp=[http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_e_holocaust_porrajmos&lang=en&articles=true 383–96]}}</ref> |
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|- |
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|Freemasons |
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|align="right"|80,000–200,000|| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name=GrandLodgeofScotland>{{cite web|url=http://www.grandlodgescotland.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=91&Itemid=125|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607190318/http://grandlodgescotland.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=91&Itemid=125|archive-date=7 June 2011 |title=GrandLodgeScotland.com|publisher=GrandLodgeScotland.com|access-date=31 July 2010}}</ref><ref name="holocaust">''Freemasons for Dummies'', by [https://web.archive.org/web/20000919233737/http://members.aol.com/brlodge/whymasons.html Christopher Hodapp], Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, p. 85, sec. ''Hitler and the Nazis''</ref> |
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|- |
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|Bosnian Muslims |
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|align="right"|29,000–33,000|| style="text-align:center;"| <ref>{{cite journal|publisher=Croatian Institute of History|title=Human Losses of the Bosnian Muslims in World War II and the Immediate Post-War Period Caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland) and the Partisans (People's Liberation Army and the Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Communist Authorities: Numerical Indicators|journal=Revue für Kroatische Geschichte = Revue d'Histoire Croate|volume=VIII|issue=1|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/103223?lang=en|pages=85–88|year=2012 |author1=[[Vladimir Geiger|Geiger, Vladimir]] <!--|last1=Geiger|first1=Vladimir-->}}<!-- ISSN/ISBN needed --></ref> |
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|- |
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|Croats |
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|align="right"|18,000–32,000|| style="text-align:center;"| <ref>{{cite journal|publisher=Croatian Institute of History|title=Human Losses of the Croats in World War II and the Immediate Post-War Period Caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland) and the Partisans (People's Liberation Army and the Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Communist Authorities: Numerical Indicators|journal=Revue für Kroatische Geschichte = Revue d'Histoire Croate|volume=VIII|issue=1|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/103223?lang=en|pages=85–88|year=2012 |author1=[[Vladimir Geiger|Geiger, Vladimir]] <!--|last1=Geiger|first1=Vladimir-->}}<!-- ISSN/ISBN needed --></ref> |
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|- |
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|Homosexuals |
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|align="right"|5,000–15,000|| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name=Chronicle108>''The Holocaust Chronicle'', Publications International Ltd., p. 108.</ref> |
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|- |
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|Jehovah's<br>Witnesses |
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|align="right"|2,500–5,000|| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name=Shulman>Shulman, William L. ''A State of Terror: Germany 1933–1939''. Bayside, New York: Holocaust Resource Center and Archives.</ref> |
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|- |
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|Spanish Republicans |
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|align="right"|7000|| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Pike, David Wingeate 2000">Pike, David Wingeate. Spaniards in the Holocaust: Mauthausen, the horror on the Danube; Editorial: Routledge Chapman & Hall {{ISBN|978-0415227803}}. London, 2000.</ref> |
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|} |
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Some scholars broaden the definition to include other German killing policies during the war, including the [[German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war|mistreatment of Soviet POWs]], [[Nazi crimes against the Polish nation|crimes against ethnic Poles]], [[Action T4|mass murder of mentally and physically disabled Germans]] (which the Nazi authorities framed as "euthanasia"),<ref name="Friedlander1997">{{cite book|last=Friedlander|first=Henry |title=The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqLDEKVk2nMC&pg=PR11|year=1997|publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-8078-4675-9|page=xi}}</ref> [[Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany|persecution]] of [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Romani genocide|the killing]] of [[Romani people|Romani]], and other crimes committed against ethnic, sexual, and political minorities.{{sfn|Niewyk|Nicosia|2000|p=45–52}} Using this definition, the total number of Holocaust victims is 11 million people. Donald Niewyk suggests that the broadest definition, including Soviet deaths due to war-related famine and disease, would produce a death toll of 17 million. Overall, about 5.7 million (78 percent) of the 7.3 million Jews in occupied Europe perished.<ref>{{cite book|first=Martin|last=Gilbert|title=Atlas of the holocaust|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p8p-AAAAMAAJ|year=1988|publisher=Pergamon Press |isbn=9780080367613|pages=242–44}}</ref> This was in contrast to the five to 11 million (1.4 percent to 3.0 percent) of the 360 million non-Jews in German-dominated Europe.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Melvin|last1=Small|author2=Joel David Singer|title=Resort to arms: international and civil wars, 1816–1980|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvASAQAAMAAJ|date=1982|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-0-8039-1776-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Michael|last=Berenbaum|title=A Mosaic of Victims: Non-Jews Persecuted and Murdered by the Nazis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-d-AGQAACAAJ|year=1990|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-1175-0}}</ref> The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum has the number of people murdered during the Holocaust era at [[Holocaust victims|17 million]]. |
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=====Romani people===== |
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{{main|Romani genocide}} |
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[[File:Persecution of Roma.gif|thumb|upright=1.5|Map of persecution of the Roma]] |
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The treatment of the [[Romani people]] was not consistent in the different areas that Nazi Germany conquered. In some areas (e.g. [[Luxembourg]] and the [[Baltic countries]]), the Nazis killed virtually the entire Romani population. In other areas (e.g. [[Denmark]] and [[Greece]]), there is no record of Romanis being subjected to mass killings.<ref>See ''History of the Holocaust: a Handbook and a Dictionary'', Edelheit, Edelheit & Edelheit, p. 458, Free Press, 1995</ref> |
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Donald Niewyk and Frances Nicosia write that the death toll was at least 130,000 out of the nearly one million Romani who resided in Nazi-controlled Europe.<ref name="Niewyk 2000 47">{{Harvnb|Niewyk|Nicosia|2000|p=47}}.</ref> Michael Berenbaum writes that serious scholarly estimates lie between 90,000 and 220,000.<ref>{{Harvnb|Berenbaum|2005|p=126}}.</ref> A study by Sybil Milton, senior historian at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, calculated a death toll of at least 220,000 and possibly closer to 500,000, but this study explicitly excluded the Roma who were killed in Romania and Yugoslavia (Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia) where the genocide of Romanies was intense.<ref name="USHMM Roma"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyed.uscourts.gov/pub/rulings/cv/1996/685455.pdf|title=Re. Holocaust Victim Assets Litigation (Swiss Banks) Special Master's Proposals|work=U.S. District Court – Eastern New York|date=11 September 2000|access-date=29 January 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516101356/http://www.nyed.uscourts.gov/pub/rulings/cv/1996/685455.pdf|archive-date=16 May 2012|df=dmy}}</ref> Martin Gilbert estimates a total of more than 220,000 deaths out of the 700,000 Romani who lived in Europe.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gilbert|first=Martin|author-link=Martin Gilbert|title=The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust|publisher=Routledge, London & New York|year=2002|isbn=978-0-415-28145-4}} (ref Map 182 p. 141 with Romani deaths by country & Map 301 p. 232) Note: formerly ''The Dent Atlas of the Holocaust''; 1982, 1993.</ref> [[Ian Hancock]], Director of the Program of Romani Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin, has argued in favor of a much higher figure of between 500,000 and 1,500,000 deaths, claiming that the Romani death toll proportionally equaled or exceeded that of Jewish victims.<ref name="383–96"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=aimNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT80 |last=Hancock |first=Ian |title= Jewish Responses to the Porajmos (The Romani Holocaust) |encyclopedia=Is The Holocaust Unique? Perspectives On Comparative Genocide |date=6 March 2019 |editor-last=Rosenbaum |editor-first=Alan S |publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780429711176 }}</ref> |
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=====Slavic population of the Soviet Union===== |
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{{Main|Eastern Front (World War II)|Soviet Union in World War II|German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war|The Holocaust in Russia|The Holocaust in the Soviet Union|World War II casualties of the Soviet Union}} |
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[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-031-2436-05A, Russland, Hinrichtung von Partisanen.jpg|thumb|200px|Men hanged as partisans somewhere in the Soviet Union.]] |
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[[File:Дистрофия алиментарная.jpg|thumb|200px|A victim of starvation in [[Siege of Leningrad|besieged Leningrad]] in 1941]] |
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The [[Nazi Germany|Nazi German]] government implemented [[Generalplan Ost]] which was part of its plan for the [[Settler colonialism|colonization]] of [[Central and Eastern Europe]].<ref name="dfg.de">[https://www.dfg.de/pub/generalplan/planung_1.html "Der Generalplan Ost."] Eine Ausstellung der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft, 2006.</ref> Implementation of the plan necessitated [[genocide]]<ref name="rosalux.de">{{cite journal|first=Dietrich|last=Eichholtz|url=http://www.rosalux.de/cms/fileadmin/rls_uploads/pdfs/167eichholtz.pdf|title="Generalplan Ost" zur Versklavung osteuropäischer Völker|trans-title="Generalplan Ost" on the enslavement of Eastern European peoples|language=de|journal=UTOPIE Kreativ|date=September 2004|issue=167|pages=800–808|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624220118/http://www.rosalux.de/cms/fileadmin/rls_uploads/pdfs/167eichholtz.pdf|archive-date=24 June 2008}}</ref> and ethnic cleansing which was to be undertaken on a vast scale in the [[German-occupied Europe|territories which were occupied by Germany]] during [[World War II]].<ref name="rosalux.de"/> The plan entailed the enslavement, expulsion, and the partial extermination of most [[Slavs|Slavic peoples]] in Europe, peoples whom the Nazis considered [[Untermensch|racially inferior]] and non-Aryan.<ref name="rosalux.de"/><ref>Hitler's Home Front: Wurttemberg Under the Nazis Jill Stephenson page 113 " Other non-'Aryans' included [[Slavs]], Blacks and Roma and Sinti (Romanies)" |
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</ref> The programme operational guidelines, which were prepared in the years 1939–1942, were based on the policy of ''[[Lebensraum]]'' which was designed by [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party|Nazi movement]], as well as being a fulfillment of the ''[[Drang nach Osten]]'' ({{lang-en|Drive towards the East}}) ideology of German expansion to the east. As such, it was intended to be a part of the [[New Order (Nazism)|New Order]] in Europe.<ref name="rosalux.de"/> |
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The civilian death toll in the regions which were occupied by Germany was estimated to be 13.7 million. Philimoshin cited sources from the Soviet era to support his figures, he used the terms "genocide" and "premeditated extermination" when he referred to the deaths of 7.4 million civilians in the occupied USSR which were caused by the direct, intentional actions of violence. Civilians killed in reprisals during the Soviet partisan war account for a major part of the huge toll. The report of Philimoshin lists the deaths of civilian forced laborers in Germany as totaling 2,164,313. G. I. Krivosheev in the report on military casualties gives a total of 1,103,300 dead POWs. The total of these two figures is 3,267,613, which is in close proximity to estimates by western historians of about 3 million deaths of prisoners in German captivity. In the occupied regions Nazi Germany implemented a policy of forced confiscation of food which resulted in the famine deaths of an estimated 6% of the population, 4.1 million persons.<ref>Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences). ''Людские потери СССР в период второй мировой войны: сборник статей -Human Losses of the USSR in the Period of WWII: Collection of Articles''. Saint-Petersburg, 1995. {{ISBN|978-5-86789-023-0}} p. 126</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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|- |
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|+ style="background:silver;" |Soviet Civilian loses, Russian Academy of Science estimates |
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|- |
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| style="background:#ee; text-align:center; width:250px;"|Deaths caused by the result of direct, intentional actions of violence |
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| style="text-align:right; background:#fff;"|7,420,379<ref>{{harvnb|Евдокимов|1995|pp=124–131}} The Russian Academy of Science article by M.V. Philimoshin based this figure on sources published in the Soviet era.</ref> |
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|- |
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| style="text-align:center; background:#ee;"|Deaths of forced laborers in Germany |
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| style="text-align:right; background:#fff;"|2,164,313{{sfn|Евдокимов|1995|pp=124–31}} |
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|- |
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| style="text-align:center; background:#ee;"|Deaths due to famine and disease in the occupied regions |
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| style="text-align:right; background:#fff;"|4,100,000<ref>{{harvnb|Евдокимов|1995|pp=124–31}} The Russian Academy of Science article by M.V. Philimoshin estimated 6% of the population in the occupied regions died due to war related famine and disease.</ref> |
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|- |
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!Total |
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| style="text-align:right; background:#fff;"|'''13,684,692''' |
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|} |
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=====Serbia===== |
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{{main|World War II in Yugoslavia|Axis occupation of Serbia|The Holocaust in Serbia}} |
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In [[The Holocaust in Serbia]], Jews were the primary target but Romani and anti-fascists were also targeted for elimination. The primary perpetrator of the Holocaust was the Nazi German ''Wehrmacht'' which was stationed in [[Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia|German-occupied Serbia]]. It carried out the operations with the assistance of the Serbian [[Milan Nedić]]'s [[collaborationism|collaborationist]] puppet [[Government of National Salvation]] which also took initiatives, and [[Dimitrije Ljotić]]'s fascist organization the [[Yugoslav National Movement]] (Zbor), which had joint control over the [[Banjica concentration camp]] in Belgrade.<ref name="Glenny502"/> |
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=====Poland===== |
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{{main|Nazi crimes against the Polish nation|The Holocaust in Poland}} |
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[[File:The Black Book of Poland (21–24).jpg|thumb|Photos from [[The Black Book of Poland]], published in London in 1942 by [[Polish government-in-exile]].]] |
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The [[Intelligenzaktion]] ("anti-[[intelligentsia]] action") was a highly secretive [[Genocide|genocidal]] action of [[Nazi Germany]] against [[Poles|Polish]] elites (primarily [[intelligentsia]]; teachers, doctors, priests, community leaders etc.) in the early stages of World War II. It was conducted as part of an attempt to complete the [[Germanization]] of the western regions of [[occupied Poland]] before their planned ''annexation''. The operation cost the lives of 100,000 Poles according to the [[Institute of National Remembrance]].<ref name="Wardzyńska2009">{{Cite book|first=Maria|last=Wardzyńska|year=2009|url=http://pamiec.pl/download/49/34737/BYLROK1939.pdf|title=Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion|trans-title=The year was 1939. Operation of German security police in Poland. Intelligenzaktion|publisher=[[Institute of National Remembrance|Portal edukacyjny Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej]]|isbn=978-83-7629-063-8|format=PDF file, direct download 2.56 MB|pages=1/356|language=pl|quote=Oblicza się, że akcja "Inteligencja" pochłonęła ponad 100 tys. ofiar. ''Translation:'' It is estimated that ''Intelligenzaktion'' took the lives of 100,000 Poles [p. 8, or p. 10 in PDF].}}</ref> |
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[[Adolf Hitler]] believed that the Polish elites might inspire the Poles to disobey their new German masters so he decreed that they had to be eliminated beforehand.<ref name="spoliation">{{cite book|title=Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression: Office of United States Chief of Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality|chapter-url=http://fundamentalbass.home.mindspring.com/c9052.htm|volume=1|year=1946|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|location=Nuremberg|chapter=Chapter XIII. Germanization and Spoliation|access-date=20 November 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415120534/http://fundamentalbass.home.mindspring.com/c9052.htm|archive-date=15 April 2016}}</ref> The aim was the elimination of Polish society's elite, which was very broadly defined as: [[Szlachta|Polish nobles]], intelligentsia, teachers, entrepreneurs, social workers, military veterans, members of national organizations, priests, judges, political activists, and anyone who had attended secondary school.<ref name="lukas8">[[Richard C. Lukas]], ''Forgotten Holocaust'', p. 8; {{ISBN|0-781-80528-7}}.</ref> It was continued by the [[German AB-Aktion operation in Poland]] in the spring and summer of 1940, which saw the [[massacre of Lwów professors]] and the [[Palmiry massacre|execution of about 1,700 Poles in the Palmiry forest]]. Several thousand civilians were executed or imprisoned. The ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]'' were also responsible for the indiscriminate killing of Poles during the [[Operation Barbarossa|1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union]] (which [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|itself had invaded a sizeable portion of pre-WWII Polish territory]], killing [[Katyn massacre|dozens of thousands of imprisoned Poles]] in turn).<ref name="Headland-94">{{cite book|last=Headland|first=Ronald|title=Messages of Murder: A Study of the Reports of the Einsatzgruppen of the Security Police and the Security Service, 1941–1943|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mue8a5Rwyi0C&pg=PA94|access-date=21 November 2016|year=1992|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|isbn=978-0-8386-3418-9|page=94}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=November 2016}}<blockquote>Our strength is our quickness and our brutality.... I have given the order—and will have everyone shot who utters but one word of criticism—that the aim of this war does not consist in reaching certain geographical lines, but in the enemies’ physical elimination. Thus, for the time being only in the east, I put ready my Death’s Head units, with the order to kill without pity or mercy all men, women, and children of the Polish race or language... [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Obersalzberg Speech]], given on 22 August 1939, a week before [[Invasion of Poland|the invasion]]</blockquote> |
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=====Volhynia and Eastern Galicia===== |
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[[File:Lipniki massacre.jpg|thumb|[[Massacres of Poles in Volhynia]] in 1943. Most Poles of Volhynia (now in Ukraine) had either been murdered or had fled the area]] |
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The massacres of Poles in [[Volhynia]] and [[Eastern Galicia]] were part of an ethnic cleansing operation carried out by the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] (UPA) West in the Nazi-occupied regions of Eastern Galicia (Nazi created [[District of Galicia|Distrikt Galizien]] in [[General Government]]), and UPA North in Volhynia (in Nazi created [[Reichskommissariat Ukraine]]), from March 1943 until the end of 1944. The peak took place in July/August 1943 when a senior UPA commander, [[Dmytro Klyachkivsky]], ordered the liquidation of the entire male Polish population between 16 and 60 years of age.<ref>[[Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist)|Tadeusz Piotrowski]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=A4FlatJCro4C&pg=PA247&dq=piotrowski+16+and+60+years#v=onepage&q=&f=false ''Poland's holocaust''. Published by McFarland. p. 247]</ref><ref>Władysław Filar, Wydarzenia wołyńskie 1939–1944. Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek. Toruń 2008 {{ISBN|978-83-7441-884-3}}</ref> Despite this, most were women and children. The UPA killed 40,000–60,000 Polish civilians in Volhynia,<ref name="Od rzezi, 447">Grzegorz Motyka, Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji "Wisła". Konflikt polsko-ukraiński 1943–1947. Kraków 2011, p. 447</ref> from 25,000<ref>Timothy Snyder, Rekonstrukcja narodów. Polska, Ukraina, Litwa, Białoruś 1569–1999, Sejny 2009, p. 196</ref> to 30,000–40,000 in Eastern Galicia.<ref name="Od rzezi, 447"/> The killings were directly linked with the policies of the [[Stepan Bandera|Bandera]] fraction of the [[Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists]], whose goal, specified at the Second Conference of the [[OUN-B]], was to remove non-Ukrainians from a future Ukrainian state.{{sfn|Gibney|Hansen|2005|p=204}} |
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The massacres are recognized in Poland as ethnic cleansing with "marks of genocide".<ref>{{cite web|title=Uchwala Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 15 lipca 2009 r. w sprawie tragicznego losu Polakow na Kresach Wschodnich|url=http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/DetailsServlet?id=WMP20090470684|publisher=Biuro Prasowe Kancelarii Sejmu|access-date=17 August 2011}}</ref> According to [[Institute of National Remembrance|IPN]] prosecutor Piotr Zając, the crimes have a "character of genocide".<ref name="Zbrodnie">{{cite book|first=Piotr|last=Zając|chapter-url=http://ipn.gov.pl/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/58900/1-19507.pdf|title=ZBRODNIE PRZESZŁOŚCI Opracowania i materiały prokuratorów IPN|trans-title=CRIMES OF THE PAST Studies and materials of the IPN prosecutors|language=pl|institution=The Institute of National Remembrance|volume=2|chapter=Persecution of Polish ethnics in the area of Volyn in 1939–1945 – criminal law assessment of events based on the findings of investigations OKŚZpNP in Lublin|editor-first=Radosław|editor-last=Ignatiew|location=Warsaw|year=2008|pages=34–49|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306081758/http://ipn.gov.pl/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/58900/1-19507.pdf|archive-date=6 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> |
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On 22 July 2016, the [[Parliament of Poland]] passed a resolution declaring 11 July a National Day of Remembrance to honor the Polish victims murdered by Ukrainian nationalists, and formally calling the massacres a ''Genocide.''<ref>[http://www.thenews.pl/1/10/Artykul/263005,Polish-MPs-adopt-resolution-calling-1940s-massacre-genocide "Polish MPs adopt resolution calling 1940s massacre genocide"]. Radio Poland. 22 July 2016.</ref> |
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=====Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia===== |
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{{Main|Ustaše|Independent State of Croatia|Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia|The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia}} |
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After the Nazi [[invasion of Yugoslavia]] on 6 April 1941, Croatian [[Nazism|Nazis]] and [[Fascism|fascists]] who were known as the [[Ustašhe]] established a [[Clerical fascism|clerical fascist]] regime which was known as the ''Nezavisna Država Hrvatska'' ([[Independent State of Croatia]]) or the NDH. Immediately afterwards, the Ustashe launched a genocidal campaign against [[Serbs]], Jews and Romani people who lived inside the borders of the NDH. The Ustaše's view of national and racial identity, as well as the theory that [[Serbs]] constituted an inferior race, was influenced by [[Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians|anti-Eastern Orthodox]] sentiment and the works of [[Croatian nationalism|Croatian nationalists]] and intellectuals which were written during the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.{{sfn|Yeomans|2013|p=7}}<ref>{{cite book| last=Bartulin| first=Nevenko| title=The Racial Idea in the Independent State of Croatia: Origins and Theory | publisher=BRILL| year=2013| isbn= 9789004262829|page=124}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last= Kenrick |first= Donald |title=The Final Chapter|date=2006|publisher= [[University of Hertfordshire Press]] |isbn= 9781902806495|page=92}}</ref> The Ustaše enacted a policy which called for a solution to the "Serbian problem" in Croatia. The solution, as promulgated by [[Mile Budak]], was to "kill one-third of the Serbs, expel one-third, and convert one-third (to [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]])."{{sfn|Robins|Jones|2009|p=106}} Historian [[Michael Phayer]] explained that the Nazis’ decision to kill all of Europe's Jews is estimated by some to have begun in the latter half of 1941, specifically in late June, which, if correct, would mean that the genocide in Croatia began before the Nazi killing of Jews.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Phayer|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Phayer|title=[[The Catholic Church and the Holocaust, 1930–1965]]|year=2000|location=Bloomington and Indianapolis|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=9780253337252|page=31}}</ref> |
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[[File:Gudovac massacre.jpg|thumb|right|Bodies of victims of the [[Gudovac massacre]] during the [[Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia|Genocide of Serbs]]]] |
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From 1941 to 1945, the Ustaše regime killed at least 200,000 to 500,000 Serbs,{{sfn|Yeomans|2013|p=18}}{{sfn|Tomasevich|2001|p=719}}{{sfn|Ramet|2006|p=114}}{{sfn|Pavlowitch|2008|p=34}}<ref>{{cite journal|format=PDF|last=de Diego García|first=Emilio|url=https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CHCO/article/viewFile/CHCO9393110171A/7097|title=El drama yugoslavo: ¿Europa entre los siglos XIX y XXI?|trans-title=The Yugoslav drama: Europe between the 19th and 21st centuries?|language=es|journal=Cuadernos de Historia Moderna y Contemporánea|publisher=Universidad Complutense de Madrid|volume=15|year=1993|issn=0214-400X|page=176|access-date=15 January 2017}}</ref> It is estimated that in the infamous [[Jasenovac concentration camp]] alone, which was notorious for its high mortality rate (higher than the mortality rate at Auschwitz) and the barbaric practices which occurred in it, approximately 100,000 people were killed.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Levy|first=Michele Frucht|title="The Last Bullet for the Last Serb": The Ustaša Genocide against Serbs: 1941–1945|journal=Nationalities Papers|volume=37|issue=6|pages=807–837|year=2009|doi=10.1080/00905990903239174|s2cid=162231741}}</ref> The Independent State of Croatia was the only Axis installed puppet state which erected [[Children in the Holocaust|children's concentration camps]].{{sfn|Yeomans|2013|p=18}} Serbs who lived in the NDH suffered one of the highest casualty rates in Europe during World War II, while the NDH was one of the most lethal regimes which existed during the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last= Dulić|first= Tomislav |date=2006|title= Mass killing in the Independent State of Croatia, 1941–1945: a case for comparative research|journal= Journal of Genocide Research |volume=8 |pages=255–281 |doi=10.1111/nana.12433 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Charny|first=Israel|author-link=Israel Charny|title = Encyclopedia of Genocide: A-H |year=1999|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9780874369281|pages=18–23}}</ref> Historian [[Stanley G. Payne]] claimed that the direct and indirect executions which were carried out by the NDH regime were an "extraordinary mass crime", which in proportionate terms exceeded the crimes which were committed by any other European regime besides Hitler's Third Reich, while [[Jonathan Steinberg]] stated that the crimes which were committed against Serbs who lived in the NDH were the "earliest total genocide to be attempted during World War II."<ref name=Payne>{{Cite journal|last= Payne |first=Stanley G. |author-link= Stanley G. Payne |date=2006|title= The NDH State in Comparative Perspective|journal= Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions|volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=409–415|doi= 10.1080/14690760600963198 |s2cid= 144782263 }}</ref> Payne added that the crimes which were committed in the NDH were only proportionately surpassed by the crimes which were committed by the [[Khmer Rouge]] in [[Cambodia]] and the crimes which were committed by several of the extremely genocidal African regimes.<ref name=Payne/> |
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=====Bosnian Muslims and Croats===== |
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{{Main|Chetnik war crimes in World War II}} |
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[[Chetnik war crimes in World War II|Mass-killings]] were committed against non-Serbs by the [[Chetniks]], a [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] [[Royalist]] and [[Serbian nationalist]] movement and [[Guerrilla warfare|guerrilla force]], in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Croatia]] and [[Sandžak]] were part of a genocide, according to some historians.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TtWycwryensC&q=chetnik+genocide&pg=PA430|isbn=978-0-203-89043-1|title=Century of genocide: critical essays and eyewitness accounts|page=430|first1=Samuel|last1=Totten|first2=William S.|last2=Parsons|year=1997|publisher=Routledge|access-date=11 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Redžić|first=Enver|title=Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War|year=2005|publisher=Tylor and Francis|location=New York|isbn=978-0714656250|page=84|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pVCx3jerQmYC&q=Chetniks+extermination&pg=PA146}}</ref> This can be seen through the mass-killings of ethnic [[Croats]] and [[Bosniaks|Muslims]] that conformed to the [[Stevan Moljević|Moljević plan]] ("On Our State and Its Borders") and the 1941 [[Draža Mihailović#Bosnia|'Instructions']] which were issued by the Chetnik leader, [[Draža Mihailović]], concerning the cleansing of non-Serbs on the basis of creating a post-war [[Greater Serbia]].{{sfn|Tomasevich|1975|p=170}}{{sfn|Lerner|1994|p=105}}{{sfn|Mulaj|2008|p=42}} The death toll by ethnicity includes between 18,000 and 32,000 Croats and 29,000 to 33,000 [[Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian Muslims]].<ref>{{cite journal|publisher=Croatian Institute of History|title=Human Losses of the Croats in World War II and the Immediate Post-War Period Caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland) and the Partisans (People's Liberation Army and the Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Communist Authorities: Numerical Indicators|journal=Revue für Kroatische Geschichte = Revue d'Histoire Croate|volume=VIII|issue=1|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/103223?lang=en|pages=85–88|year=2012 |author1=[[Vladimir Geiger|Geiger, Vladimir]] <!--|last1=Geiger|first1=Vladimir-->}}<!-- ISSN/ISBN needed --></ref> |
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=====Disabled and mentally ill===== |
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{{main|Nazi eugenics|Action T4|Child euthanasia in Nazi Germany|Erbkrank|Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring|Life unworthy of life|Schloss Hartheim}} |
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{{quote|Our starting-point is not the individual, and we do not subscribe to the view that one should feed the hungry, give drink to the thirsty or clothe the naked—those are not our objectives. Our objectives are entirely different. They can be put most crisply in the sentence: we must have a healthy people in order to prevail in the world.|[[Joseph Goebbels]], 1938.<ref>{{Harvnb|Burleigh|Wippermann|1991|p=69}}.</ref>}} |
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Between 1939 and 1941, 80,000 to 100,000 mentally ill adults in institutions were killed; 5,000 children in institutions; and 1,000 Jews in institutions.<ref name = "Lifton 2000 142">{{Harvnb|Lifton|2000|p=142}}.</ref> Outside the mental health institutions, the figures are estimated to number 20,000 (according to Dr. Georg Renno, the deputy director of [[Schloss Hartheim]], one of the [[Hartheim Euthanasia Centre|killing faciiities]] known as "euthanasia" centers) or 400,000 (according to [[Franz Ziereis]], the commandant of [[Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp]]).<ref name = "Lifton 2000 142"/> Another 300,000 were forcibly sterilized.<ref>{{Harvnb|Neugebauer|1998}}.</ref> Overall it has been estimated that over 270,000 individuals<ref name="holocaust-education.dk"/> with mental disorders of all kinds were put to death, although their mass murder has received relatively little historical attention. Along with the physically disabled, people suffering from [[dwarfism]] were persecuted as well. Many were put on display in cages and experimented on by the Nazis.<ref>{{cite web|author=J Tithonus Pednaud|url=http://thehumanmarvels.com/894/the-ovitz-family-nazi-experiments/dwarfism|title=The Ovitz Family – Nazi Experiments|publisher=Thehumanmarvels.com|date=2008|access-date=18 January 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116033002/http://thehumanmarvels.com/894/the-ovitz-family-nazi-experiments/dwarfism|archive-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Despite not being formally ordered to take part, [[psychiatrist]]s and psychiatric institutions were at the center of justifying, planning and carrying out the atrocities at every stage, and "constituted the connection" to the later annihilation of Jews and other "undesirables" in the Holocaust.<ref>{{Harvnb|Strous|2007}}.</ref> After strong protests by the German Catholic and Protestant churches on 24 August 1941 Hitler ordered the cancellation of the T4 program.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lifton|2000|p=95}}.</ref> |
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The program was named after [[Tiergartenstraße]] 4, the address of a villa in the Berlin borough of [[Tiergarten, Berlin|Tiergarten]], the headquarters of the General Foundation for Welfare and Institutional Care,<ref>{{Harvnb|Sereny|1995|pp=48–49}}.</ref> led by [[Philipp Bouhler]], head of Hitler's private chancellery (''Kanzlei des Führer der NSDAP'') and [[Karl Brandt]], Hitler's personal physician. |
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Brandt was tried in December 1946 at [[Nuremberg Trials|Nuremberg]], along with 22 others, in a case known as ''United States of America vs. Karl Brandt et al.'', also known as the [[Doctors' Trial]]. He was [[hanging|hanged]] at [[Landsberg Prison]] on 2 June 1948. |
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==Post-World War II== |
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The CPPCG was adopted by the [[UN General Assembly]] on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951 (Resolution 260 (III)). After the necessary 20 countries became parties to the Convention, it came into force as international law on 12 January 1951. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the [[UN Security Council]] (UNSC) were parties to the treaty, which caused the Convention to languish for over four decades. |
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===Post–World War II Central and Eastern Europe=== |
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====Ethnic cleansing of Germans==== |
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{{Main|Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|}} |
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[[File:Vertreibung.jpg|thumb|[[Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia]]]] |
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After WWII ended, about 11-12 million<ref name=Weber2>Jürgen Weber, Germany, 1945–1990: A Parallel History, Central European University Press, 2004, p. 2, {{ISBN|963-9241-70-9}}</ref><ref name=Kacowicz100/><ref name=Schuck156>Peter H. Schuck, Rainer Münz, Paths to Inclusion: The Integration of Migrants in the United States and Germany, Berghahn Books, 1997, p. 156, {{ISBN|1-57181-092-7}}</ref> Germans were forced to flee from or were expelled from several countries throughout Eastern and Central Europe including [[Volga Germans|Russia]], [[Romania]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Yugoslavia]] and the prewar territory of Poland. A large number of them were also displaced when Germany's former eastern provinces either passed to [[Soviet Russia]] or became [[Recovered Territories|again]] part of Poland in accordance with the [[Potsdam Agreement]] (Poland lost these territories in various periods over several centuries), regardless of those lands being under heavy German ethnic and cultural influence since the German colonization in the [[Ostsiedlung|Late Middle Ages]] or [[Drang nach Osten|19th century]], and under German rule since the conquests and expansion of [[Margraviate of Brandenburg|Brandenburg]] and [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]]. The majority of these expelled and displaced Germans ended up in what remained of Germany, with some being sent to [[West Germany]] and others being sent to [[East Germany]]. |
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The ethnic cleansing of the Germans was the largest [[population transfer|displacement]] of a single European population in [[Modern Era|modern history]].<ref name=Weber2/><ref name="Kacowicz100">Arie Marcelo Kacowicz, Pawel Lutomski, Population resettlement in international conflicts: a comparative study, Lexington Books, 2007, p. 100, {{ISBN|978-0739116074}}: "... largest movement of European people in modern history" [https://www.google.com/books?id=ovck_g0xwX0C&pg=PA103&dq=expulsion+germans+poland&lr=&as_brr=3#PPA100,M1]</ref> Estimates for the total number of those who died during the removals range from 500,000 to 2,000,000, where the higher figures include "unsolved cases" of persons reported as missing and presumed dead. Many German civilians were sent to internment and labor camps as well, where they often died. The events are usually classified as either a [[population transfer]],{{sfn|Frank|2008}}<ref> |
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''Europe and German unification'', Renata Fritsch-Bournazel p. 77, Berg Publishers 1992</ref> or an ethnic cleansing.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M734r1ZXW2cC&q=expulsion%20cleansing%20germans&pg=PA657|title=Encyclopedia of the United Nations and international agreements|first1=Edmund Jan|last1=Osmańczyk|publisher=Routledge|year=2003|isbn=978-0-415-93924-9|page=656}} {{dead link|date=October 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} |
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*{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/firesofhatred00norm/page/15|title=Fires of hatred: ethnic cleansing in twentieth-century Europe|first1=Norman M.|last1=Naimark|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-674-00994-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/firesofhatred00norm/page/15 15, 112. 121, 136]}} |
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*{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ARxnK1u_WOEC&q=expulsion%20cleansing%20germans&pg=PA53|title=A clean sweep?: the politics of ethnic cleansing in western Poland, 1945–1960|first1=T. David|last1=Curp|publisher=University of Rochester Press|year=2006|isbn=978-1-58046-238-9|page=200}} |
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*{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JFvq55U3wy8C&q=expulsion%20cleansing%20germans&pg=PA175|title=Ethnicity and democratisation in the new Europe|first1=Karl|last1=Cordell|publisher=Routledge|year=1999|isbn=978-0-415-17312-4|page=175}} |
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* {{Cite book|title=Jüdische Geschichte als allgemeine Geschichte|first1=Dan|last1=Diner|first2=Raphael|last2=Gross|first3=Yfaat|last3=Weiss|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht|year=2006|isbn=978-3-525-36288-4|page=163}} |
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*{{Cite book|title=Immigration and asylum: from 1900 to the present, Volume 3|first=Matthew J.|last=Gibney|url=https://archive.org/details/immigrationasylu00matt/page/196|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2005|isbn=978-1-57607-796-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/immigrationasylu00matt/page/196 196]}}</ref><ref> |
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{{Cite book|title=Redrawing nations: ethnic cleansing in East-Central Europe, 1944–1948. Harvard Cold War studies book series|editor1-first=Philipp|editor1-last=Ther|editor2-first=Ana|editor2-last=Siljak|first=Eagle|last=Glassheim|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2001|isbn=978-0-7425-1094-4|page=197}} |
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*{{Cite book|title=What is genocide?|first=Martin|last=Shaw|author-link=Martin Shaw (sociologist)|publisher=Polity|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7456-3182-0|page=56}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of genocide, Volume 2|first1=Paul|last1=Totten|last2=Bartrop|first3=Steven L|last3=Jacobs|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|year=2008|isbn=978-0-313-34644-6}} |
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*{{harvnb|Frank|2008|p=5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=What is genocide?|first=Martin|last=Shaw|author-link=Martin Shaw (sociologist)|publisher=Polity|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7456-3182-0}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=sVnl-HgG4QEC&lpg=PP1&dq=%22What%20is%20genocide%22&pg=PA54#v=onepage&q=&f=false pp. 56, 60–61] |
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*{{harvnb|Rubinstein|2004|p={{google books|id=nMMAk4VwLLwC|p=260}}}}</ref> [[Felix Ermacora]], among a minority of legal scholars, equated ethnic cleansing with genocide,<ref>[http://www.echr.coe.int/Pages/home.aspx?p=home European Court of Human Rights] – [https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?p=&id=1163649&Site=COE&direct=true|%20%27ethnic%20|%20cleansing%27&sessionid=24809174&skin=hudoc-en Jorgic v. Germany Judgment], 12 July 2007. § 47 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115212503/http://www.echr.coe.int/Pages/home.aspx?p=home |date=15 January 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7dH0qS_tQS0C&q=ethnic%20cleansing%20germans&pg=PA118|title=Encyclopedia of Public International Law|first=Hans-Heinrich|last=Jescheck|author-link=Hans-Heinrich Jescheck|year=1995|isbn=978-90-04-14280-0}}</ref> and stated that the expulsion of the Germans therefore constituted genocide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ermacora-institut.at/wDeutsch/dokumente/pdf/gutachten_ermacora_1991.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516024318/http://www.ermacora-institut.at/wDeutsch/dokumente/pdf/gutachten_ermacora_1991.pdf|archive-date=16 May 2011 |title=Gutachten Ermacora 1991|first=Felix|last=Ermacora|author-link=Felix Ermacora|year=1991}}</ref> |
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=== Partition of India === |
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{{Main|Partition of India}} |
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The '''Partition of India''' was the [[Partition (politics)|partition]] of the [[British Indian Empire]]<ref>The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan by Yasmin Khan</ref> that led to the creation of the [[sovereign state]]s of the [[Dominion of Pakistan]] (which later split into [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]]) and the [[Dominion of India]] (later the [[History of the Republic of India|Republic of India]]) on 15 August 1947. During the Partition, one of British India's greatest provinces, the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]], was split along communal lines into [[Punjab, Pakistan|West Punjab]] and [[East Punjab]] (later split into the three separate modern-day Indian states of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], Haryana and Himachal Pradesh). West Punjab was formed out of the Muslim majority districts of the former British Indian [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]], while [[East Punjab]] was formed out of the Hindu and Sikh majority districts of the former province. |
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[[File:Vultures and corpses in the street of Calcutta, 1946.jpg|thumb|Corpses in the street of [[Calcutta]] after the [[Direct Action Day]] in 1946]] |
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Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs who had co-existed for a millennium attacked each other in what is argued to be a retributive genocide<ref name="Brass2003">{{cite journal|last=Brass|first=Paul R.|title=The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: Means, methods, and purposes|journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]]|publisher=Routledge|volume=5|issue=1|year=2003|pages=71–101|url=http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf|doi=10.1080/14623520305657|s2cid=14023723|access-date=18 April 2016}}</ref> of horrific proportions, accompanied by arson, looting, rape and abduction of women. The Indian government claimed that 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women were abducted, and the Pakistani government claimed that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted during riots. By 1949, there were governmental claims that 12,000 women had been recovered in India and 6,000 women had been recovered in Pakistan.<ref name="Visweswaran2011">{{cite book|last=Visweswaran|first=Kamala|title=Perspectives on Modern South Asia: A Reader in Culture, History, and Representation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-EYXNnvMugC&pg=PA123|access-date=18 April 2016|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-0062-5|page=123}}</ref> By 1954 there were 20,728 recovered Muslim women and 9,032 Hindu and Sikh women recovered from Pakistan.<ref name="MenonBhasin1998">{{cite book|last1=Menon|first1=Ritu|last2=Bhasin|first2=Kamla|title=Borders & Boundaries: Women in India's Partition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yNN4SE7cL60C&pg=PA99|access-date=18 April 2016|year=1998|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-2552-5|page=99}}</ref> |
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This partition triggered off what was one of the world's largest mass migrations in modern history.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/partition1947_01.shtml|title=The Hidden Story of Partition and its Legacies|date=3 March 2011 |first=Crispin |last=Bates |work=BBC|access-date=16 August 2014}}</ref> Around 11.2 million people successfully crossed the India-West Pakistan border, mostly through the Punjab. 6.5 million Muslims migrated from India to West Pakistan and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs from West Pakistan arrived in India. However many people went missing. |
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A study of the total population inflows and outflows in the districts of the Punjab, using the data provided by the 1931 and 1951 Census has led to an estimate of 1.26 million missing Muslims who left western India but did not reach Pakistan.<ref name="EPW">{{Cite journal|last2=Khwaja|first2=Asim|last3=Mian|first3=Atif|date=30 August 2008|title=The Big March: Migratory Flows after the Partition of India|url=http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/akhwaja/papers/Big%20March%20EPW%20Publish08.pdf|journal=Economic & Political Weekly|page=43|access-date=16 January 2016 |last1=Bharadwaj|first1=Prasant}}</ref> The corresponding number of missing Hindus/Sikhs along the western border is estimated to be approximately 0.84 million.<ref name="Bharadwaj, Prasant 2008">Bharadwaj, Prasant; Khwaja, Asim; Mian, Atif (30 August 2008). "The Big March: Migratory Flows after the Partition of India" (PDF). ''Economic & Political Weekly'': 43. Retrieved 16/01/2016</ref> This puts the total number of missing people due to Partition-related migration along the Punjabi border at around 2.23 million.<ref name="Bharadwaj, Prasant 2008" /> |
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Nisid Hajari, in "Midnight’s Furies" (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt) wrote:<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/06/29/the-great-divide-books-dalrymple|title=The Great Divide|last=Dalrymple|first=William|date=29 June 2015 |newspaper=The New Yorker|issn=0028-792X|access-date=19 March 2016}}</ref><blockquote>Gangs of killers set whole villages aflame, hacking to death men and children and the aged while carrying off young women to be raped. Some British soldiers and journalists who had witnessed the Nazi death camps claimed Partition’s brutalities were worse: pregnant women had their breasts cut off and babies hacked out of their bellies; infants were found literally roasted on spits."</blockquote>By the time the violence had subsided, Hindus and Sikhs had been completely wiped out of Pakistan's West Punjab and similarly Muslims were completely wiped out of India's East Punjab.<ref name="Brass2003"/> |
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Partition also affected other areas of the subcontinent besides the Punjab. Anti-Hindu riots took place in Hyderabad, [[Sindh|Sind.]] On 6 January anti-Hindu riots broke out in Karachi, leading to an estimate of 1100 casualties.<ref name="Bhavnani">{{cite book|title=The Making of Exile: Sindhi Hindus and the Partition of India|last=Bhavnani|first=Nandita|publisher=Westland|year=2014|isbn=978-93-84030-33-9}}</ref> 776,000 Sindhi Hindus fled to India.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Global World of Indian Merchants, 1750–1947|last=Markovits|first=Claude|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2000|isbn=978-0-521-62285-1|page=278}}</ref> |
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Anti-Muslim riots also rocked Delhi. According to Gyanendra Pandey's recent account of the Delhi violence between 20,000 and 25,000 Muslims in the city lost their lives.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia: Refugees, Boundaries, Histories|last=Zamindar|first=Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-231-13847-5|page=247}}</ref> Tens of thousands of Muslims were driven to refugee camps regardless of their political affiliations and numerous historic sites in Delhi such as the Purana Qila, Idgah and Nizamuddin were transformed into refugee camps. At the culmination of the tensions in Delhi 330,000 Muslims were forced to flee the city to Pakistan. The 1951 Census registered a drop of the Muslim population in Delhi from 33.22% in 1941 to 5.33% in 1951.<ref>{{cite book|title=Muslims In Indian Cities|last=Sharma|first=Bulbul|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers India|year=2013|isbn=978-93-5029-555-7}}</ref> Meanwhile, as a result of the [[Noakhali riots]] and Direct Action Day, Hindus in Bangladesh dwindled from 28% in the 1940s to a mere 9% in 2011.<ref>[[Hinduism in Bangladesh#Demographics]]</ref>{{Circular reference|date=January 2020}} During the Noakhali riots, more than 5,000 were massacred in eight days and there were reports of numerous forced conversions, arson, abduction and rape by the Bangladeshi local Muslim population. |
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=== Since 1951 === |
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The CPPCG was adopted by the [[UN General Assembly]] on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951 (Resolution 260 (III)). After the necessary 20 countries became parties to the Convention, it came into force as international law on 12 January 1951.<ref name="CPPCG" /> At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the [[UN Security Council]] (UNSC) were parties to the treaty, which caused the Convention to languish for over four decades. |
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====Australia==== |
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{{Further|Stolen Generation|History wars|Bringing them home}} |
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Sir [[Ronald Wilson]] was once the president of Australia's Human Rights Commission. He stated that Australia's program in which 20–25,000 Aboriginal children were forcibly separated from their natural families<ref name="RM-The-Age">Manne, Robert [http://www.theage.com.au/news/robert-manne/the-cruelty-of-denial/2006/09/08/1157222325367.html "The cruelty of denial"], ''[[The Age]]'', 9 September 2006</ref> was genocide, because it was intended to cause the Aboriginal people to die out. The program ran from 1900 to 1969.<ref>{{Cite news| title=A Stolen Generation Cries Out| publisher=Reuters |date=May 1997 |url=http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/24/088.html}}</ref> The nature and extent of the removals have been disputed within Australia, with opponents questioning the findings contained in the Commission report and asserting that the size of the [[Stolen Generation]] had been exaggerated. The intent and effects of the government policy were also disputed.<ref name="RM-The-Age"/> |
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====Zanzibar==== |
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In 1964, towards the end of the [[Zanzibar Revolution]]—which led to the overthrow of the [[Sultan of Zanzibar]] and his mainly Arab government by local African revolutionaries—[[John Okello]] claimed in radio speeches to have killed or imprisoned tens of thousands of the Sultan's "enemies and stooges",<ref name="parsons107">{{Cite book|last=Parsons|first=Timothy|title=The 1964 Army Mutinies and the Making of Modern East Africa|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KoLbjlIYLzwC|isbn=978-0-325-07068-1|page = 107}}</ref> but estimates of the number of deaths vary greatly, from "hundreds" to 20,000. The New York Times and other Western newspapers gave figures of 2–4,000;<ref name="nyt19jan">{{Cite news| last = Conley | first = Robert | title = Nationalism Is Viewed as Camouflage for Reds | newspaper = New York Times | page = 1 | date = 19 January 1964 | url =https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C0CEED6123FEE32A2575AC1A9679C946591D6CF| access-date = 16 November 2008 }}</ref><ref name="latimes">{{cite news|title=Slaughter in Zanzibar of Asians, Arabs Told|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/doc/168504360.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Jan%2020,%201964&author=&pub=Los%20Angeles%20Times%20%281886-Current%20File%29&edition=&startpage=4&desc=|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|page=4|date=20 January 1964|access-date=2 March 2016|url-access=subscription }}</ref> the higher numbers possibly were inflated by Okello's own broadcasts and exaggerated media reports.<ref name="parsons107"/>{{sfn|Plekhanov|2004|p=91}}{{sfn|Sheriff|Ferguson|1991|p=241}} The killing of Arab prisoners and their burial in [[mass grave]]s was documented by an Italian film crew, filming from a helicopter, in ''[[Africa Addio]]''.<ref>[[Gualtiero Jacopetti|Jacopetti, Gualtiero]] (Director). (1970)</ref> Many [[Arabs]] fled to safety in [[Oman]]{{sfn|Plekhanov|2004|p=91}} and by Okello's order no Europeans were harmed.{{sfn|Speller|2007|p=7}} The violence did not spread to [[Pemba Island|Pemba]].{{sfn|Sheriff|Ferguson|1991|p=241}} [[Leo Kuper]] described the killing of Arabs in Zanzibar as genocide.<ref>Israel W. Charny. ''Encyclopedia of Genocide'', ABC-CLIO, 1999 {{ISBN|978-0-87436-928-1}} {{Google books|id=8Q30HcvCVuIC|p=378}} cites ''Genocide:Its Political Use in the 20th Century'', London: Penguin Books, 1981; New Haven, Connecticut:Yale University Press 1982.</ref> |
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====Nigeria==== |
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=====Biafra (1966-1970)===== |
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{{further|Nigerian Civil War}} |
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After [[Nigeria]] gained its independence from British rule in 1960, stigma towards the [[Igbo people|Igbo ethnic group]] of the east increased. When a supposedly [[1966 Nigerian coup d'état|Igbo led coup]]<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-35312370 |title = How first coup still haunts Nigeria 50 years on|work = BBC News|date = 15 January 2016}}</ref> overthrew and murdered senior government officials, the other ethnic groups of Nigeria, particularly the [[Hausa people|Hausa]], launched a massive anti-Igbo campaign. This campaign began with the [[1966 anti-Igbo pogrom]] and the [[1966 Nigerian counter-coup]]. In the pogrom, Igbo property was destroyed and up to 300,000 Igbos fled the North and sought safety in the East and about 30,000 Igbos were killed. In the counter-coup that followed, Igbo civilians and military personnel were also systematically murdered.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://sites.tufts.edu/atrocityendings/2015/08/07/nigeria-civil-war/ | title=Nigeria: Civil war | Mass Atrocity Endings}}</ref> On 30 May 1967, when the Igbos declared their independence from Nigeria and formed the breakaway state of [[Biafra]], the Nigerian and British governments<ref name="pambazuka.org">{{Cite web | url=https://www.pambazuka.org/human-security/igbo-genocide-britain-and-united-states-pt1 | title=The Igbo genocide, Britain and the United States (Pt.1) | Pambazuka News}}</ref> launched a total blockade of Biafra. Initially on the offensive, [[Biafra]] began to suffer and its government frequently had to move because the Nigerian army kept on conquering its capital cities. The main cause of death was [[starvation]], and children suffered the most. Children were often afflicted with [[Kwashiorkor]], a disease caused by [[malnutrition]]. The people resorted to [[Human cannibalism|cannibalism]] on many occasions.<ref>http://www.nigerianwatch.com/former-biafran-commander-ben-guile-reveals-ndigbo-resorted-to-cannibalism-during-civil-war/{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The documentation of the suffering of the Igbo children is attributed to the work of the [[French Red Cross]] and other Christian organisations. There are many estimates for the death toll of the Igbo in the genocide. The number of soldiers who were killed in the war is estimated to be 100,000 and the number of civilians who were also killed ranges from 500,000 to 3.5 million. More than half of those who died in the war were children.<ref name="pambazuka.org"/> Currently, Nigeria still suppresses peaceful protests by Biafra independence hopefuls, often by sending soldiers to beat protestors and even to kill them.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.latimes.com/world/africa/la-fg-nigeria-biafra-20161126-story.html |title = Biafra, scene of a bloody civil war decades ago, is once again a place of conflict|date = 27 November 2016}}</ref> |
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=====Boko Haram and Fulani Herdsman (1999 - present) ===== |
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{{further|Boko Haram insurgency|Herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria}} |
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Since the turn of the 21st century, 62,000 [[Christianity in Nigeria|Nigerian Christians]] have been killed by the terrorist group [[Boko Haram]], [[Fulani herdsmen]] and other groups.<ref>{{cite web |last1=F. Haverluck |first1=Michael |title='Silent slaughter' – 2 decades of genocide in Nigeria |url=https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/2020/08/07/Silent-slaughter-%E2%80%93-2-decades-of-genocide-in-Nigeria |website=Genocide Watch |publisher=August 7, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=ICON Launches New Report Proving Nigerian Genocide |url=https://missionsbox.org/press-releases/icon-launches-new-report-proving-genocide-in-nigeria/ |website=Missions Box}}</ref> The killings have been referred to as a silent genocide.<ref>{{cite web |title=Silent Slaughter |url=https://iconhelp.org/silent-slaughter/ |website=International Committee on Nigeria}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Nigeria's Silent Slaughter Genocide in Nigeria and the Implications for the International Community |journal=International Committee on Nigeria |url=https://clientwebproof.com/Nigeria-Silent-Slaughter/}}</ref> |
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====Algeria==== |
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===== Sétif and Guelma ===== |
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The [[Sétif and Guelma massacre]] was a series of attacks by French colonial authorities and [[pied-noir]] settler militias on Algerian civilians in 1945 around the market town of [[Sétif]], west of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]], in [[French Algeria]]. French police fired on demonstrators at a protest on 8 May 1945.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.algerie-dz.com/article611.html|title=Témoins des massacres du 8 Mai 1945 en Algérie}}</ref> Riots in the town were followed by attacks on French settlers (''colons'') in the surrounding countryside, resulting in 102 deaths. Subsequent attacks by the French colonial authorities and European settlers killed between 6,000 and 30,000 Muslims in the region. The words used to refer to the events are often instrumentalized or carry a memorial connotation. The word ''massacre'', currently applied in historical research to the Muslim Algerian victims of May 1945, was first used in French propaganda in reference to the 102 European colonial settler victims; apparently to justify the French suppression.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Le 8 mai 1945 en Algérie : les discours français sur les massacres de Sétif, Kherrata et Guelma|last=Mehana.|first=Amrani|date=2010|publisher=Harmattan|isbn=9782296120730|location=Paris|oclc=672222819}}</ref> The word ''genocide'', used by Bouteflika<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nouvelobs.com/monde/20060508.OBS6821/bouteflika-reclame-des-excuses-publiques.html|title=Boutéflika réclame "des excuses publiques"|date=8 May 2006|work=L'Obs}}</ref> for example, does not apply to the events in Guelma, since the Algerian victims there were reportedly targeted because of their nationalist activism; which might make the Guelma massacre a [[Definitions of politicide|politicide]] according to B. Harff and Ted R. Gurr's definition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Harff|first1=Barbara|last2=Gurr|first2=Ted Robert|date=1988-09-01|title=Toward Empirical Theory of Genocides and Politicides: Identification and Measurement of Cases since 1945|url=https://academic.oup.com/isq/article/32/3/359/1853935|journal=International Studies Quarterly|volume=32|issue=3|pages=359–371|doi=10.2307/2600447|issn=0020-8833|jstor=2600447}}</ref> The term ''massacre'' is, according to [[Jacques Sémelin]] a more useful methodological tool for historians to study an event whose definition is debated.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Purifier et détruire usages politiques des massacres et génocides|last=Sémelin|first=Jacques|date=2005|publisher=Éditions du Seuil|isbn=9782021008746|location=Paris|oclc=936677982}}</ref> |
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===== Harkis ===== |
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{{further|Algerian War}} |
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After independence was gained after the [[Algerian War]] the [[Harkis]] ([[Muslims]] who supported the French during the war) were seen as traitors by many Algerians, and many of those who stayed behind suffered severe reprisals after independence. French historians estimate that somewhere between 50,000 and 150,000 [[Harkis]] and members of their families were killed by the FLN or by lynch mobs in Algeria, often in atrocious circumstances or after torture.<ref name="Horne 537">{{cite book|first=Alistair|last=Horne|pages=[https://archive.org/details/savagewarofpeace00horn/page/537 537]|title=A Savage War of Peace|isbn=978-0-670-61964-1|year=1978|url=https://archive.org/details/savagewarofpeace00horn/page/537}}</ref> |
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====Cambodia (1975–1979)==== |
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[[File:Photos of victims in Tuol Sleng prison (2).JPG|thumb|Rooms of the [[Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum]] contain thousands of photos of victims which were taken by the Khmer Rouge.]] |
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{{Main|Cambodian genocide}} |
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In [[Cambodia]] between 1975 and 1979, a [[genocide]] was committed by the [[Khmer Rouge]] (KR) [[Khmer Rouge rule of Cambodia|regime]] in which an estimated 1.5 to 3 million people died.{{sfn|Frey|2009|p=83}} The KR group and its leader [[Pol Pot]] renamed [[Cambodia]] [[Democratic Kampuchea]] and they also wanted to transform Cambodia into an [[Agrarian socialism|agrarian socialist]] society which would be governed according to the ideals of [[Stalinism]] and [[Maoism]]. The KR's policies which included the forced relocation of the Cambodian population from urban centers to rural areas, [[torture]], mass executions, the use of [[forced labor]], [[malnutrition]], and [[disease]] caused the death of an estimated 25 percent of Cambodia's total population (around 2 million people).{{sfn|Etcheson|2005|p=119}}{{sfn|Heuveline|1998|pp=49-65}} The genocide ended following the [[Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia]].{{sfn|Mayersan|2013|p=182}} Since then, at least 20,000 mass graves, known as the [[Killing Fields]], have been uncovered.{{sfn|Etcheson|2005|p=114}} |
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====Guatemala (1981–1983)==== |
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{{Main|Guatemalan civil war|Guatemalan genocide}} |
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[[File:Memorial Rio Negro.jpg|thumb|Memorial to the victims of the [[Río Negro massacres]]]] |
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During the [[Guatemalan civil war]], between 140,000 and 200,000 people are estimated to have died and more than one million people fled their homes and hundreds of villages were destroyed. The officially chartered [[Historical Clarification Commission]] attributed more than 93% of all documented human rights violations to U.S.–supported Guatemala's military government; and estimated that [[Maya peoples|Maya]] [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indians]] accounted for 83% of the victims.<ref>[https://www.un.org/press/en/1999/19990301.guate.brf.html Press conference by members of the Guatemala Historical Clarification Commission], United Nations website, 1 March 1999 |
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* Staff. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/286402.stm Guatemala 'genocide' probe blames state], [[BBC]], 25 February 1999.</ref> Although the war lasted from 1960 to 1996, the Historical Clarification Commission concluded that genocide might have occurred between 1981 and 1983, when the government and guerrilla had the fiercest and bloodiest combats and strategies, especially in the oil-rich area of [[Ixcán]] on the northern part of [[Quiché Department|Quiché]].{{sfn|Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico: Agudización|1999|p=}} The total numbers of killed or "[[Forced disappearance#Guatemala|disappeared]]" was estimated to be around 200,000,<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/03/magazine/the-secrets-in-guatemalas-bones.html?_r=1 The Secrets in Guatemala’s Bones]. ''[[The New York Times]].'' 30 June 2016.</ref> although this is an extrapolation that was done by the Historical Clarification Commission based on the cases that they documented, and there were no more than 50,000.{{sfn|Asociación Americana para el Avance de la Ciencia|1999|p=}} The commission also found that U.S. corporations and government officials "exercised pressure to maintain the country's archaic and unjust socio-economic structure," and that the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] backed illegal counterinsurgency operations.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1999/02/26/world/guatemalan-army-waged-genocide-new-report-finds.html Guatemalan Army Waged 'Genocide,' New Report Finds]. ''The New York Times.'' 26 February 1999.</ref> |
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[[File:RIOS M genocida 07Apr06.JPG|thumb|[[Efraín Ríos Montt]] was found guilty of genocide]] |
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In 1999, Nobel peace prize winner [[Rigoberta Menchú]] brought a case against the military leadership in a Spanish Court. Six officials, among them [[Efraín Ríos Montt]] and [[Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores]], were formally charged on 7 July 2006 to appear in the Spanish National Court after Spain's Constitutional Court ruled in 2005 that Spanish courts could exercise [[universal jurisdiction]] over war crimes committed during the [[Guatemalan Civil War]].<ref>{{cite web|first=James M. Jr|last=Yoch|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/07/Spain-judge-charges-ex-generals-in.php|title=Spain judge charges ex-generals in Guatemala genocide case|work=jurist.law.pitt.edu|date=8 July 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306234002/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/07/spain-judge-charges-ex-generals-in.php|archive-date=6 March 2010}}</ref> In May 2013, Rios Montt was found guilty of genocide for killing 1,700 indigenous [[Ixil people|Ixil]] Mayans during 1982–83 by a Guatemalan court and sentenced to 80 years in prison.<ref>Castillo, Mariano (13 May 2013). [http://www.cnn.com/2013/05/10/world/americas/guatemala-genocide-trial/index.html Guatemala's Rios Montt guilty of genocide]. [[CNN]]. Retrieved 17 May 2013.</ref> However, on 20 May 2013, the [[Constitutional Court of Guatemala]] overturned the conviction, voiding all proceedings back to 19 April and ordering that the trial be "reset" to that point, pending a dispute over the recusal of judges.<ref name=Reuters>{{cite news|first=Mike|last=McDonald|title=Guatemala's top court annuls Ríos Montt genocide conviction|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-guatemala-riosmontt-idUSBRE94K04I20130521|work=Reuters|date=21 May 2013|access-date=26 March 2016}}</ref><ref name=Guardian>{{cite news|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 May 2013|title=Ríos Montt genocide case collapses|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/21/rios-montt-genocide-case-collapses|location=London}}</ref> Ríos Montt's trial was supposed to resume in January 2015,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-24833642|title=Guatemala Rios Montt genocide trial to resume in 2015|work=BBC News|date=6 November 2013|access-date=6 November 2013}}</ref> but it was suspended after a judge was forced to recuse herself.<ref>{{cite web|title = Eighteen Months After Initial Conviction, Historic Guatemalan Genocide Trial Reopens but is Ultimately Suspended|url = http://www.ijmonitor.org/2015/01/eighteen-months-after-initial-conviction-historic-guatemalan-genocide-trial-reopens-but-is-ultimately-suspended/|website = www.ijmonitor.org |access-date=8 July 2015|date = 6 January 2015}}</ref> Doctors declared Ríos Montt unfit to stand trial on 8 July 2015, noting that he would be unable to understand the charges brought against him.<ref>{{cite news|title = Guatemala: Ex-ruler Rios Montt found unfit for trial – BBC News|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-33438374 |access-date=8 July 2015|work = BBC News |date = 8 July 2015 }}</ref> |
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====Bangladesh Liberation War Genocide of 1971==== |
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{{Main|1971 Bangladesh genocide|Operation Searchlight|Bangladesh Liberation War}} |
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An academic consensus holds that the events that took place during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] constituted [[1971 Bangladesh genocide|genocide]].<ref name=Payaslian>{{cite web|last=Payaslian|first=Simon|title=20th Century Genocides|url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199743292/obo-9780199743292-0105.xml|publisher=Oxford bibliographies}}</ref> During the nine-month-long conflict an estimated 300,000 to 3 million people were killed and the Pakistani armed forces raped between 200,000–400,000 Bangladeshi women and girls in an act of [[genocidal rape]].<ref name=Sharlach>{{cite journal|last=Sharlach|first=Lisa|title=Rape as Genocide: Bangladesh, the Former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda|journal=New Political Science|year=2010|volume=22|issue=1|pages=89–102|doi=10.1080/713687893|s2cid=144966485}}</ref> |
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A 2008 study estimated that up to 269,000 civilians died in the conflict; the authors noted that this is far higher than two earlier estimates.<ref>Obermeyer, Ziad, et al., [http://www.bmj.com/content/336/7659/1482 "Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme"], ''British Medical Jornal,'' June 2008.</ref> |
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[[File:Protest against War Crimes at Shahabag Square (8459696133).jpg|thumb|[[2013 Shahbag protests]] demanding the death penalty for the war criminals of the 1971 war]] |
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A case was filed in the Federal Court of Australia on 20 September 2006 for alleged war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide during 1971 by the Pakistani Armed Forces and its collaborators:<ref name="SYG_2672_2006">{{cite press release|url=http://www.rayimmigration.com.au/pressrelease.htm|title=Raymond Faisal Solaiman v People's Republic of Bangladesh & Ors|publisher=Federal Court of Australia|work=Federal Magistrates Court of Australia at Sydney|date=20 September 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091214084924/http://www.rayimmigration.com.au/pressrelease.htm|archive-date=14 December 2009}}</ref> |
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{{bquote|We are glad to announce that a case has been filed in the Federal Magistrate's Court of Australia today under the Genocide Conventions Act 1949 and War Crimes Act. This is the first time in history that someone is attending a court proceeding in relation to the [alleged] crimes of Genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity during 1971 by the Pakistani Armed Forces and its collaborators. The Proceeding number is SYG 2672 of 2006. On 25 October 2006, a direction hearing will take place in the Federal Magistrates Court of Australia, Sydney registry before Federal Magistrate His Honor Nicholls.}} |
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On 21 May 2007, at the request of the applicant the case was discontinued.<ref>This judgement can be found via the [http://esearch.fedcourt.gov.au/ Federal Court of Australia home page] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070903215345/http://esearch.fedcourt.gov.au/ |date=3 September 2007 }} by following the links and using SYG/2672/2006 as the key for the database</ref> |
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====Burundi in 1972 and 1993==== |
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{{Main|Ikiza|Burundian genocide (1993)}} |
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After [[Burundi]] gained its independence in 1962, two events occurred which were labeled genocide. The first event was the mass-killing of [[Hutu]]s by the [[Tutsi]] army in 1972<ref name="BowenFreeman1973">{{cite book|first1=Michael|last1=Bowen|first2=Gary|last2=Freeman|first3=Kay|last3=Miller|title=Passing by: The United States and Genocide in Burundi, 1972|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0y1BAAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace}}</ref> and the second event was the killing of Tutsis by the Hutu population in 1993 which was recognized as an act of genocide in the final report of the International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi presented to the [[United Nations Security Council]] in 2002.<ref name="ICIBFR-496">[http://www.usip.org/files/file/resources/collections/commissions/Burundi-Report.pdf International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi: Final Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090716020747/http://www.usip.org/files/file/resources/collections/commissions/Burundi-Report.pdf |date=16 July 2009 }} Source Name: United Nations Security Council, S/1996/682; received from Ambassador Thomas Ndikumana, Burundi Ambassador to the United States, Date received: 7 June 2002. Paragraph 496.</ref> |
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====North Korea==== |
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{{Main|Human rights in North Korea|Prisons in North Korea}} |
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Several million people in [[North Korea]] have died of [[North Korean famine|starvation since the mid-1990s]], with aid groups and human rights [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] often stating that the [[Government of North Korea|North Korean government]] has systematically and deliberately prevented food aid from reaching the areas which are most devastated by food shortages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-peoples-republic-korea/action-against-hunger-stops-its-activities-north-korea|title=Action Against Hunger stops its activities in North Korea|work=ReliefWeb|date=10 March 2000|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref> An additional one million people have died in [[Kwalliso|North Korea's political prison camps]], which are used to detain dissidents and their entire families, including children, for perceived political offences.<ref name="wapo1103">{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/when-will-we-stop-the-genocide-in-north-korea/2011/03/29/AFqXaMEE_story.html|title=When will we stop the genocide in North Korea?|first=Robert|last=Park|date=20 April 2011|work=Washington Post|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref> |
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In 2004, Yad Vashem called on the international community to investigate "political genocide" in North Korea.<ref name="wapo1103"/> |
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In September 2011, a ''Harvard International Review'' article argued that the North Korean government was violating the UN Genocide Convention by systematically killing half-Chinese babies and members of religious groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hir.harvard.edu/north-korea-and-the-genocide-movement/|title=North Korea and the Genocide Movement|first=Robert|last=Park|work=Harvard International Review|date=27 September 2011|access-date=16 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220011528/http://hir.harvard.edu/north-korea-and-the-genocide-movement/|archive-date=20 February 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> North Korea's Christian population, which was considered to be the center of [[Christianity]] in [[East Asia]] in 1945 and included 25–30% of the inhabitants of [[Pyongyang]], has been systematically massacred and persecuted; as of 2012 50,000–70,000 Christians were imprisoned in North Korea's concentration camps.<ref>Park, Robert, [http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20120208000741&cpv=0 "The Case for Genocide in North Korea"], ''The Korea Herald,'' 8 February 2012.</ref> |
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====Equatorial Guinea==== |
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[[Francisco Macías Nguema]] was the first [[President of Equatorial Guinea]], from 1968 until his overthrow in 1979.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dictatorofthemonth.com/Nguema/Dec2001NguemaEN.htm|title=Francisco Macias Nguema|work=dictatorofthemonth.com|date=December 2001|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050328174604/http://www.dictatorofthemonth.com/Nguema/Dec2001NguemaEN.htm|archive-date=28 March 2005}}</ref> During his presidency, his country was nicknamed "the [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]] of Africa". Nguema's regime was characterized by its abandonment of all government functions except internal security, which was accomplished by terror; he acted as chief judge and sentenced thousands to death. This led to the death or exile of up to 1/3 of the country's population. From a population of 300,000, an estimated 80,000 had been killed, in particular those of the [[Bubi people|Bubi]] ethnic minority on [[Bioko]] associated with relative wealth and education.<ref>{{cite news|date=11 May 2007|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/coup-plotter-faces-life-in-africas-most-notorious-jail-448340.html|title=Coup plotter faces life in Africa's most notorious jail|publisher=pub|access-date=17 June 2008|last=Kim Sengupta|location=London}}</ref> Uneasy around educated people, he had killed everyone who wore spectacles. All schools were ordered closed in 1975. The economy collapsed and skilled citizens and foreigners emigrated.<ref>{{cite news |first=Anthony |last=Daniels |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2004/08/29/do2902.xml&sSheet=/opinion/2004/08/29/ixopinion.html|title=If you think this one's bad you should have seen his uncle|date=29 August 2004|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051124171044/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fopinion%2F2004%2F08%2F29%2Fdo2902.xml&sSheet=%2Fopinion%2F2004%2F08%2F29%2Fixopinion.html|archive-date=24 November 2005|df=dmy|newspaper=The Telegraph}}</ref> |
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On 3 August 1979, he was [[1979 Equatorial Guinea coup d'état|overthrown]] by his nephew [[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.people.cn/200111/19/eng20011119_84896.shtml |title=Chinese President Meets Equatorial Guinean President |date=20 November 2001 |work=People's Daily Online |location=Beijing, China}}</ref> Macías Nguema was captured and tried for genocide and other crimes along with 10 others. All were found guilty, four received terms of imprisonment and Nguema and the other six were executed on 29 September.<ref>John B. Quigley (2006) ''The Genocide Convention: An International Law Analysis'', Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, {{ISBN|0-7546-4730-7}}. {{google books|id=ZXZ8qMR5YVQC|p=31-32}} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Equatorial-Guinea-HISTORY.html |title=Equatorial Guinea |year=2006 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Nations |publisher=Thomson Corporation }}</ref> |
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John B. Quigley noted at Macías Nguema's trial that Equatorial Guinea had not ratified the Genocide convention and that records of the court proceedings show that there was some confusion over whether Nguema and his co-defendants were tried under the laws of Spain (the former colonial government) or whether the trial was justified on the claim that the Genocide Convention was part of customary international law. Quigley stated, "The Macias case stands out as the most confusing of domestic genocide prosecutions from the standpoint of the applicable law. The Macias conviction is also problematic from the standpoint of the identity of the protected group."<ref>John B. Quigley (2006) ''The Genocide Convention: An International Law Analysis'', Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, {{ISBN|0-7546-4730-7}}. {{google books|id=ZXZ8qMR5YVQC|p=32}}</ref> |
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====Indonesia==== |
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=====Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66===== |
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{{main|Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|May 1998 riots of Indonesia}} |
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In the mid-1960s, hundreds of thousands of [[Left-wing politics|leftists]] and others who were tied to the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI) were massacred by the Indonesian military and right-wing paramilitary groups after a failed coup attempt which was blamed on the Communists. At least 500,000 people were killed over a period of several months, and thousands more were interned in prisons and concentration camps under extremely inhumane conditions.<ref name="GellatelyKiernan">{{cite book |last1= Gellately|first1= Robert|author-link1= Robert Gellately|last2= Kiernan|first2= Ben|author-link2= Ben Kiernan|date= July 2003|title= The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective|url= http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-regional-history/specter-genocide-mass-murder-historical-perspective|publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]]|pages= [https://books.google.com/books?id=k9Ro7b0tWz4C&lpg=PP1&pg=PA290#v=onepage&q&f=false 290–91]|isbn=978-0521527507 |access-date= 17 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Cribb |first1= Robert |last2= Kahin|first2= Audrey|date= 15 September 2004|title= Historical Dictionary of Indonesia|publisher= Scarecrow Press|page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=SawyrExg75cC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA264#v=onepage&q&f=false 264]|isbn= 978-0810849358}}</ref><ref name="Blumenthal80">Mark Aarons (2007). "[https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&lpg=PA80&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide]." In David A. Blumenthal and Timothy L. H. McCormack (eds). ''[http://www.brill.com/legacy-nuremberg-civilising-influence-or-institutionalised-vengeance The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (International Humanitarian Law).]'' [[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]. {{ISBN|9004156917}} p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA80 80].</ref> The violence culminated in the fall of President [[Sukarno]] and the commencement of [[Suharto]]'s [[New Order (Indonesia)|thirty-year authoritarian rule]]. Some scholars have described the killings as genocide,<ref>{{cite book |last= Robinson|first=Geoffrey B.|date= 2018|title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965-66|url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11135.html|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |page=4|isbn=9781400888863}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| editor1-last=McGregor|editor1-first=Katharine|editor2-last=Melvin|editor2-first=Jess|editor3-last=Pohlman |editor3-first=Annie|date=2018 |title=The Indonesian Genocide of 1965: Causes, Dynamics and Legacies (Palgrave Studies in the History of Genocide)|url=https://www.palgrave.com/de/book/9783319714547|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-3319714547}}</ref> including Robert Cribb, Jess Melvin and [[Joshua Oppenheimer]].<ref>Robert Cribb (2004). "[https://books.google.com/books?id=LoQo50YPzTUC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA133#v=onepage&q&f=false The Indonesian Genocide of 1965–1966]." In [[Samuel Totten]] (ed). ''Teaching about Genocide: Approaches, and Resources''. [[Information Age Publishing]], pp. 133–43. {{ISBN|159311074X}}</ref><ref>Joshua Oppenheimer. [https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/30/opinion/suhartos-purge-indonesias-silence.html Suharto’s Purge, Indonesia’s Silence]. ''The New York Times.'' 29 September 2015.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Melvin|first1=Jess|date=2017|title=Mechanics of Mass Murder: A Case for Understanding the Indonesian Killings as Genocide|journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]]|volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=487–511 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2017.1393942|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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According to scholars and a 2016 international tribunal held in the Hague, Western powers, including Great Britain, Australia and [[CIA activities in Indonesia#Anti-communist purge|the United States]], aided and abetted the mass killings.<ref>{{cite book |last=Simpson|first=Bradley|date= 2010|title=Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.–Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968|url=http://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|page=193|isbn=978-0804771825|quote="Washington did everything in its power to encourage and facilitate the army-led massacre of alleged PKI members, and U.S. officials worried only that the killing of the party's unarmed supporters might not go far enough, permitting Sukarno to return to power and frustrate the [Johnson] Administration's emerging plans for a post-Sukarno Indonesia."}}</ref><ref>Kai Thaler (2 December 2015). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2015/12/02/50-years-ago-today-the-u-s-embassy-endorsed-mass-killings-in-indonesia-heres-what-that-means-for-today/ 50 years ago today, American diplomats endorsed mass killings in Indonesia. Here’s what that means for today.] ''[[The Washington Post]].'' Retrieved 2 December 2015.</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Perry|first=Juliet|title=Tribunal finds Indonesia guilty of 1965 genocide; US, UK complicit|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/21/asia/indonesia-genocide-panel/index.html|work=CNN|date=21 July 2016|access-date=6 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Bevins |first=Vincent |date=20 October 2017 |title=What the United States Did in Indonesia|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/|work= The Atlantic|access-date=30 October 2017}}</ref> U.S. Embassy officials provided kill lists to the Indonesian military which contained the names of 5,000 suspected high-ranking members of the PKI.<ref name="Kadane">[http://www.namebase.net/kadane.html Ex-agents say CIA compiled death lists for Indonesians] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923084105/http://www.namebase.net/kadane.html |date=23 September 2016 }} ''San Francisco Examiner'', 20 May 1990. Retrieved 8 September 2015.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Robinson|first=Geoffrey B.|date= 2018|title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66|url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11135.html|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |page=203 |isbn=9781400888863|quote=a US Embassy official in Jakarta, Robert Martens, had supplied the Indonesian Army with lists containing the names of thousands of PKI officials in the months after the alleged coup attempt. According to the journalist Kathy Kadane, "As many as 5,000 names were furnished over a period of months to the Army there, and the Americans later checked off the names of those who had been killed or captured." Despite Martens later denials of any such intent, these actions almost certainly aided in the death or detention of many innocent people. They also sent a powerful message that the US government agreed with and supported the army's campaign against the PKI, even as that campaign took its terrible toll in human lives.}}</ref><ref name="LA Times">[https://articles.latimes.com/2001/jul/28/news/mn-27536 U.S. Seeks to Keep Lid on Far East Purge Role]. ''The Associated Press'' via ''The Los Angeles Times'', 28 July 2001. Retrieved 8 September 2015.</ref><ref>Bellamy, Alex J. (2012). ''Massacres and Morality: Mass Atrocities in an Age of Civilian Immunity.'' [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-19-928842-9}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EK8eK2xPCycC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA210#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 210.]</ref><ref name="Blumenthal81">Mark Aarons (2007). "[https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&lpg=PA80&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide]." In David A. Blumenthal and Timothy L. H. McCormack (eds). ''[http://www.brill.com/legacy-nuremberg-civilising-influence-or-institutionalised-vengeance The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (International Humanitarian Law).]'' [[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]. {{ISBN|9004156917}} p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA81 81].</ref> Many of those accused of being Communists were journalists, trade union leaders and intellectuals.<ref name="Oppenheimer">[http://www.democracynow.org/2015/8/3/the_look_of_silence_will_new "The Look of Silence": Will New Film Force U.S. to Acknowledge Role in 1965 Indonesian Genocide?] ''[[Democracy Now!]]'' 3 August 2015.</ref> |
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Methods of killing included beheading, evisceration, dismemberment and castration.<ref>Michael Atkinson (16 July 2015). [http://inthesetimes.com/article/18158/a-quiet-return-to-the-killing-fields-of-indonesia A Quiet Return to the Killing Fields of Indonesia]. ''[[In These Times]].'' Retrieved 3 August 2015.</ref> A top-secret CIA report stated that the massacres "rank as one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century, along with the Soviet purges of the 1930s, the Nazi mass murders during the Second World War, and the Maoist bloodbath of the early 1950s."<ref name="Blumenthal81"/> |
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=====West New Guinea/West Papua===== |
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{{main|Papua conflict}} |
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An estimated 100,000+ [[Papuan languages|Papuans]] have died since Indonesia took control of [[West New Guinea]] from the Dutch Government in 1963.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sydney.edu.au/news/84.html?newsstoryid=651|first=Virginia|last=Gawler|title=Report claims secret genocide in Indonesia|publisher=University of Sydney|date=19 August 2005|access-date=27 March 2016}}</ref><ref name="WestPapuaFinal">{{cite web|first1=Elizabeth|last1=Brundige|first2=Winter|last2=King|first3=Priyneha|last3=Vahali|first4=Stephen|last4=Vladeck|first5=Xiang|last5=Yuan|url=http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/Intellectual_Life/West_Papua_final_report.pdf|title=Indonesian Human Rights Abuses in West Papua: Application of the Law of Genocide to the History of Indonesian Control|publisher=Yale Law School|date=April 2004|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227145157/http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/Intellectual_Life/West_Papua_final_report.pdf|archive-date=27 February 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=John|last1=Wing|first2=Peter|last2=King|url=http://wpik.org/Src/WestPapuaGenocideRpt.05.pdf|title=Genocide in West Papua?: The role of the Indonesian state apparatus and a current needs assessment of the Papuan people|publisher=West Papua Project|location=Sydney|isbn=978-0-9752391-7-9|date=August 2005|access-date=27 March 2016}}</ref> An academic report alleged that "contemporary evidence set out [in this report] suggests that the Indonesian government has committed proscribed acts with the intent to destroy the West Papuans as such, in violation of the 1948 [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]] and the customary international law prohibition this Convention embodies."<ref name="WestPapuaFinal"/>{{rp|75}} |
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=====East Timor===== |
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{{main|East Timor genocide}} |
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[[File:Re-enactment Santa Cruz massacre.jpg|thumb|A re-enactment of the [[Santa Cruz massacre]], November 1998]] |
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[[East Timor]] was [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invaded]] by Indonesia on 7 December 1975 [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|and it remained under Indonesian occupation]] as an annexed territory with provincial status until it [[1999 East Timorese independence referendum|gained its independence from Indonesia in 1999]]. A detailed statistical report which was prepared for the [[Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor]] cited a lower range of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period from 1974–1999, namely, approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 excess deaths which were caused by hunger and illness, including deaths which were caused by the Indonesian military's use of "starvation as a weapon to exterminate the East Timorese",<ref name="SPowell">{{cite web|first=Sian|last=Powell|url=http://www.yale.edu/gsp/east_timor/unverdict.html|title=UN verdict on East Timor|work=The Australian |publisher=Yale University Genocide Studies Program|date=19 January 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060512142628/http://www.yale.edu/gsp/east_timor/unverdict.html|archive-date=12 May 2006}}</ref> most of which occurred during the Indonesian occupation.<ref name="SPowell"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Benetech Human Rights Data Analysis Group|title=The Profile of Human Rights Violations in Timor-Leste, 1974–1999: A Report by the Benetech Human Rights Data Analysis Group to the Commission on Reception, Truth and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste|publisher=Human Rights Data Analysis Group (HRDAG)|date=9 February 2006|url=http://www.hrdag.org/resources/timor_chapter_graphs/timor_chapter_page_02.shtml|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/65eZ8hHJe?url=http://www.hrdag.org/resources/timor_chapter_graphs/timor_chapter_page_02.shtml|archive-date=22 February 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy}}</ref> Earlier estimates of the number of people who died during the occupation ranged from 60,000 to 200,000.<ref>{{cite web|last=Nunes|first=Joe|title=East Timor: Acceptable Slaughters|work=The architecture of modern political power|url=http://www.mega.nu/ampp/nunestimor.html|date=1996}}</ref> |
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According to Sian Powell, a UN report confirmed that the Indonesian military used [[starvation]] as a weapon and employed [[Napalm]] and [[chemical warfare|chemical weapons]], which poisoned the food and water supply.<ref name="SPowell"/> Ben Kiernan wrote: |
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<blockquote>the crimes committed ... in East Timor, with a toll of 150,000 in a population of 650,000, clearly meet a range of sociological definitions of genocide ...[with] both political and ethnic groups as possible victims of genocide. The victims in East Timor included not only that substantial 'part' of the Timorese 'national group' targeted for destruction because of their resistance to Indonesian annexation...but also most members of the twenty-thousand strong ethnic Chinese minority.<ref name="Kiernam">{{cite web|first=Ben|last=Kiernam|url=http://www.yale.edu/gsp/east_timor/03-263_Ch_09.pdf|title=War, Genocide, and Resistance in East Timor, 1975–99: Comparative Reflections on Cambodia|publisher=yale.edu|date=15 July 2003|page=202|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060920124313/http://www.yale.edu//gsp/east_timor/03-263_Ch_09.pdf|archive-date=20 September 2006}}<br>See Kiernan's footnotes on pp. 174–75: "clearly meet a range of sociological definitions of genocide..." – Leo Kuper, ''Genocide'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1981)</ref></blockquote> |
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====Philippines (Marcos dictatorship)==== |
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{{Main|History of the Philippines under Ferdinand Marcos|Moro conflict}} |
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Many [[Human rights abuses of the Marcos dictatorship|human rights violations]] were committed under the [[conjugal dictatorship]] of [[Ferdinand Marcos|Ferdinand]] and [[Imelda Marcos]], including genocide, especially the genocide of the Islamic [[Moro people]] who live in [[Mindanao|the south]].<ref name="gmanetwork.com">https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/675312/murad-marcos-regime-rsquo-s-genocidal-war-vs-muslims-drove-us-to-armed-struggle/story/</ref> These ethnically-based massacres included the [[Palimbang massacre]],<ref name="rappler.com">https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/fact-check/false-no-massacres-during-martial-law</ref> the [[Bingcul massacre]],<ref name="rappler.com"/> and the [[Jabidah massacre]], which triggered the Islamic [[Moro conflict]] which continues to the present day.<ref name="Timeline">{{cite web |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/236761/news/specialreports/fighting-and-talking-a-mindanao-conflict-timeline |title=Fighting and talking: A Mindanao conflict timeline |date=October 27, 2011 |publisher=[[GMA News and Public Affairs]] |access-date=May 5, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313034932/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/236761/news/specialreports/fighting-and-talking-a-mindanao-conflict-timeline |archive-date=March 13, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="sfof">{{cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1968/03/28/jabidah-special-forces-of-evil-by-senator-benigno-s-aquino-jr/|title=Jabidah! Special Forces of Evil?|first=Benigno S.|last=Aquino Jr.|work=Delivered at the Legislative Building, Manila, on 28 March 1968|publisher=[[Government of the Philippines]]|date=March 28, 1968}}</ref><ref name="gmanetwork.com"/> |
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====Bangladesh==== |
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=====Biharis===== |
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{{main|Persecution of Biharis in Bangladesh|}} |
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Immediately after the [[Bangladesh Liberation War|Bangladesh independence war of 1971]], those Biharis who were still living in Bangladesh were accused of being "pro-Pakistani" "traitors" by the Bengalis, and an estimated 1,000 to 150,000 Biharis were killed by Bengali mobs in what has been described as a "Retributive Genocide".<ref name="Fink2010">{{cite book|first=George|last=Fink|title=Stress of War, Conflict and Disaster|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOq4XV94wLsC&pg=PA292|access-date=14 February 2016|year=2010|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-381382-4|page=292}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=R.J. Rummel|author-link=Rudolph Rummel|url=http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP8.HTM|title=Statistics Of Pakistan's Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources|publisher=University of Hawai'i|date=1997|access-date=13 February 2016}}</ref> [[Mukti Bahini]] has been accused of crimes against minority Biharis by the Government of Pakistan. According to a white paper released by the Pakistani government, the Awami League killed 30,000 Biharis and West Pakistanis. Bengali mobs were often armed, sometimes with machetes and bamboo staffs.<ref>Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 231. {{ISBN|978-0415486194}}.</ref> 300 Biharis were killed by Bengali mobs in Chittagong. The massacre was used by the Pakistani Army as a justification to launch [[Operation Searchlight]] against the Bengali nationalist movement.<ref>D'Costa, Bina (2010). Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia. Routledge. p. 103. {{ISBN|978-0415565660}}.</ref> Biharis were massacred in Jessore, Panchabibi and Khulna (where, in March 1972, 300 to 1,000 Biharis were killed and their bodies were thrown into a nearby river).<ref>Gerlach, Christian (2010). Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-70681-0}}.</ref><ref>Bennett Jones, Owen (2003). Pakistan: Eye of the Storm (2nd revised ed.). Yale University Press. p. 171. {{ISBN|978-0-300-10147-8}}.</ref><ref>"Massacre of Biharis in Bangladesh". The Age. 15 March 1972. Retrieved 4 June 2013.</ref> Having generated unrest among Bengalis,<ref>Siddiqi, Abdul Rahman (2005). East Pakistan: The Endgame: An Onlooker's Journal 1969–1971. Oxford University Press. p. 171. {{ISBN|978-0195799934}}.</ref> Biharis became the target of retaliation. The Minorities at Risk project puts the number of Biharis killed during the war at 1,000;<ref>"Chronology for Biharis in Bangladesh". The Minorities at Risk (MAR) Project. Retrieved 27 March 2013.</ref> however, R.J. Rummel cites a "likely" figure of 150,000.<ref>"Statistics Of Pakistan'S Democide". Hawaii.edu. Retrieved 31 July 2013.</ref> |
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=====Indigenous Chakmas===== |
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{{main|Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict|Persecution of indigenous peoples in Bangladesh|2012 Ramu violence|Persecution of Buddhists}} |
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In [[Bangladesh]], the persecution of the indigenous tribes of the [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]] such as the [[Chakma people|Chakma]], [[Marma people|Marma]], [[Tripuri people|Tripura]] and others, who are mainly [[Buddhists]], has been described as genocidal.{{sfn|Gray|1994}}{{sfn|O'Brien|2004}}{{sfn|Mey|1984}}{{sfn|Moshin|2003}}{{sfn|Roy|2000}} There are also accusations of Chakmas being forced to leave their religion, many of them children who have been abducted for this purpose. The conflict started soon after Bangladeshi independence in 1971, when the Constitution imposed [[Bengali language|Bengali]] as the only sole language and a military coup happened in 1975. Subsequently, the government encouraged and sponsored the massive settlement of Bangladeshis in the region, which changed the indigenous population's demographics from 98 percent in 1971 to fifty percent by 2000. The Bangladeshi government sent one third of its military forces to the region to support the settlers, sparking a protracted guerilla war between Hill tribes and the military.{{sfn|O'Brien|2004}} During this conflict, which officially ended in 1997, and during the subsequent period, a large number of human rights violations against the indigenous peoples have been reported, with violence against indigenous women being particularly extreme.{{sfn|Chakma|Hill|2013}} |
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Bengali soldiers and some fundamentalists settlers were also accused of raping native [[Jumma people|Jumma]] (Chakma) women "with impunity", with the Bangladeshi security forces doing little or nothing to protect the Jummas and instead assisting the rapists and settlers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/10141 |title=Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh – rapists act with impunity |last1=McEvoy |first1=Mark |date= 3 April 2014 |website=Survival International – The movement for tribal peoples }}</ref> |
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Although Bangladesh is an officially secular country,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/print_sections.php?id=367&vol=15§ions_id=24560|title=Fundamental Principles of State Policy: Secularism and freedom of religion (Substituted for the former article 12 by the Constitution (Fifteenth Amendment) Act, 2011 (Act XIV of 2011), section 11) |work=Bangladesh Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division Ministry of Law, Justice and Parliamentary Affairs |date=2011 |access-date=13 February 2016}}</ref> the events leading up to East Pakistan's secession amounted to religious and ethnic genocide.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The politics of genocide scholarship: the case of Bangladesh |journal=Patterns of Prejudice |date=1 December 2007 |issn=0031-322X |pages=467–92 |volume=41 |issue=5 |doi=10.1080/00313220701657286 |first=Donald |last=Beachler|s2cid=220344166 }}</ref> |
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====Laos==== |
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By 1975, as a result of the collapse of [[South Vietnam]] at the end of the [[Vietnam War]] and the loss of American support, the [[Pathet Lao]] was able to take control of the Laotian government in December of that year, abolish the [[Kingdom of Laos|constitutional monarchy]] which controlled it and establish a [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] state which is called the [[Laos|Lao People's Democratic Republic]]. [[Hmong people]], especially those Hmong who had fought against the Pathet Lao, were singled out for retribution. Of those Hmong people who remained in Laos, over 30,000 were sent to re-education camps as political prisoners where they served indeterminate, sometimes life sentences. Enduring hard physical labor and difficult living conditions, many Hmong people died.<ref>[http://www.cal.org/co/hmong/hhist.html The Hmong: An Introduction to their History and Culture] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012234615/http://www.cal.org/co/hmong/hhist.html |date=October 12, 2012 }}</ref> Thousands of other Hmong people, mainly former soldiers and their families, escaped to remote mountain regions - particularly to [[Phou Bia]], the highest (and thus the least accessible) mountain peak in Laos. At first, these loosely organized groups staged attacks against the [[Pathet Lao]] and Vietnamese troops. Other groups remained in hiding in order to avoid conflict. Initial military successes by these small bands led to military counter-attacks by government forces, including [[Aerial bombing of cities|aerial bombing]] raids and the use of heavy [[artillery]], as well as the use of [[defoliant]]s and [[chemical weapon]]s.<ref>Minority Policies and the Hmong in Laos(Published in Stuart-Fox, M. ed. Contemporary Laos: Studies in the Politics and Society of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (St.Lucia: Queensland University Press, 1982), pp. 199 - 219){{cite web|url=http://www.hmongnet.org/hmong-au/hmong82a.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2006-12-21 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101051201/http://www.hmongnet.org/hmong-au/hmong82a.htm |archive-date=2007-01-01 }}</ref> |
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Vang Pobzeb estimates that 300,000 Hmong and Lao people have been killed by the Vietnamese and Laotian governments since 1975 and he calls these killings a [[genocide]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Report on the 20th session of the Working Group on Indigenous Populations (Second day - Afternoon) |url=https://www.unpo.org/article/196 |website=Unrepreseneted Nations and Peoples Organization}}</ref> Today, most Hmong people in Laos live peacefully in villages and cities, but small groups of Hmong people, many of them second or third generation descendants of former CIA soldiers, remain internally displaced in remote parts of Laos, in fear of government reprisals. As recently as 2003, there were reports of sporadic attacks by these groups, but journalists who have visited their secret camps in recent years have described the people who live in them as being hungry, sick, and lacking weapons except Vietnam War-era rifles.<ref>{{cite news | first=Andrew | last=Perrin | title=Welcome to the Jungle | date=2003-04-28 | url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,501030505-447253,00.html | work=Time Magazine | access-date=2007-04-27 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503045339/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,501030505-447253,00.html | archive-date=May 3, 2007 | url-status=live | df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first=Richard | last=Arnold | title=Laos: Still a Secret War | date=2007-01-19 | url=http://www.worldpress.org/Asia/2641.cfm | work=Worldpress | access-date=2007-04-27 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509115458/http://www.worldpress.org/Asia/2641.cfm | archive-date=May 9, 2007 | url-status=live | df=mdy-all }}</ref> Despite posing no military threat, the Laotian government has continued to characterize these people as "bandits" and it continues to attack their positions, using [[rape]] as a weapon and often killing and injuring women and children.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sommerfilms.org/documentaries/Hmong/index.php|title=Rebecca Sommer Film Clips|access-date=20 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110105092728/http://www.sommerfilms.org/documentaries/Hmong/index.php|archive-date=January 5, 2011|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Most of the casualties occur while people are gathering food from the jungle, because the establishment of permanent settlements is not possible.<ref>{{cite news| title=Lao People's Democratic Republic| date=2007-03-27| publisher=Amnesty International| url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGASA260032007| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070410212624/http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGASA260032007| url-status=dead| archive-date=2007-04-10| access-date=2007-04-27}}</ref> |
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====Argentina==== |
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[[File:Acto recuperación de La Perla (Córdoba)-24MAR07-Autor Martín Gaitán(4).jpg|thumb|Commemoration in Argentina]] |
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In September 2006, [[Miguel Etchecolatz|Miguel Osvaldo Etchecolatz]], who had been the police commissioner of the province of [[Buenos Aires Province|Buenos Aires]] during the [[Dirty War]] (1976–1983), was found guilty of six counts of murder, six counts of unlawful imprisonment and seven counts of [[torture]] in a federal court. The judge who presided over the case, Carlos Rozanski, described the offences as part of a systematic attack that was intended to destroy parts of society that the victims represented and as such was genocide. Rozanski noted that CPPCG does not include the elimination of political groups (because that group was removed at the behest of Stalin), but instead based his findings on 11 December 1946 [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 96]] barring acts of genocide "when racial, religious, political and other groups have been destroyed, entirely or in part" (which passed unanimously), because he considered the original UN definition to be more legitimate than the politically compromised CPPCG definition.<ref name="Klein-100-102">Naomi Klein. ''The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism'', Macmillan, 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-8050-7983-8}}. {{google books|id=b1uQNYbE8DkC|p=100–102}}</ref> |
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====Ethiopia==== |
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[[Ethiopia]]'s former Soviet-backed Marxist dictator [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] was tried in an Ethiopian court, ''[[trial in absentia|in absentia]]'', for his role in mass killings. Mengistu's charge sheet and evidence list covered 8,000 pages. The evidence against him included signed execution orders, videos of torture sessions and personal testimonies.<ref name="Ethiopian Dictator">[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/11/AR2007011100243.html Ethiopian Dictator Sentenced to Prison] by Les Neuhaus, [[The Associated Press]], 11 January 2007</ref> The trial began in 1994 and on 12 December 2006 Mengistu was found guilty of genocide and other offences. He was sentenced to life in prison in January 2007.<ref name="BBC-2007-01-11">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6251095.stm Mengistu is handed life sentence] [[BBC]], 11 January 2007</ref><ref name="Mengistu found guilty">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6171429.stm|title=Mengistu found guilty of genocide|agency=BBC News|date=12 December 2006|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref> Ethiopian law includes attempts to annihilate political groups in its definition of genocide.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://tvnz.co.nz/view/news_world_story_skin/929524|title=Ethiopian leader guilty of genocide|publisher=TVNZ|agency=Reuters|date=13 December 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114004558/http://tvnz.co.nz/view/news_world_story_skin/929524|archive-date=14 November 2007}}</ref> |
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106 [[Derg]] officials were accused of genocide during the trials, but only 36 of them were present. Several former Derg members have been sentenced to death.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ethiopianreporter.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1489|title=Court sentences Major Melaku Tefera to death|work=Ethiopian Reporter|date=10 December 2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055949/http://www.ethiopianreporter.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1489|archive-date=28 September 2007}}</ref> [[Zimbabwe]] refused to respond to Ethiopia's extradition request for Mengistu, which permitted him to avoid a life sentence. Mengistu supported [[Robert Mugabe]], the former long-standing President of Zimbabwe, during his leadership of Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite web|first=Bernard|last=Hibbitts|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/12/no-zimbabwe-extradition-of-mengistu.php|title=No Zimbabwe extradition of Mengistu after Ethiopia genocide conviction|publisher=University of Pittsburgh legal news|date=13 December 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112002308/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/paperchase/2006/12/no-zimbabwe-extradition-of-mengistu.php|archive-date=12 January 2008}}</ref> |
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Michael Clough, a US attorney and longtime Ethiopia observer, told [[Voice of America]] in a statement released on 13 December 2006,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/2006/12/13/Ex-Ethiopian-dictator-guilty-of-genocide/UPI-69111165992249 |title=Ex-Ethiopian dictator guilty of genocide |publisher=UPI.com |date=13 December 2006 |access-date=11 March 2014}}</ref> |
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<blockquote>The biggest problem with prosecuting Mengistu for genocide is that his actions did not necessarily target a particular group. They were directed against anybody who was opposing his government, and they were generally much more political than based on any ethnic targeting. In contrast, the irony is the Ethiopian government itself has been accused of genocide based on atrocities committed in Gambella. I'm not sure that they qualify as genocide either. But in Gambella, the incidents, which were well documented in a human rights report of about 2 years ago, were clearly directed at a particular group, the tribal group, the [[Anuak people|Anuak]].</blockquote> |
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An estimated 150,000 university students, intellectuals and politicians were killed during Mengistu's rule.<ref>{{cite news|first=Tsegaye|last=Tadesse|url=http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=1355&id=1848132006|title='Butcher of Addis Ababa' is guilty of genocide with torture regime|publisher=The Scotsman|date=13 December 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106181413/http://news.scotsman.com/ethiopia/Butcher-of-Addis-Ababa-is.2834618.jp|archive-date=6 January 2008}}</ref> [[Amnesty International]] estimates that up to 500,000 people were killed during the [[Red Terror (Ethiopia)|Ethiopian Red Terror]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=4eSR1rHg5_YC&pg=PA457&dq=half+a+million+Red+Terror+of+1977+and+1978&ei=4pvqRqCkDo3eoALaiuiFAw&ie=ISO-8859-1&sig=Ba_dV32N_Z1dqTfznGjiZuUcx8o ''The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World''] by Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, p. 457 |
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* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/575405.stm US admits helping Mengistu escape] [[BBC]], 22 December 1999 |
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* ''Talk of the Devil: Encounters with Seven Dictators'' by Riccardo Orizio, p. 151</ref> [[Human Rights Watch]] described the Red Terror as "one of the most systematic uses of [[mass murder#Mass murder by a state|mass murder by a state]] ever witnessed in Africa".<ref name="Ethiopian Dictator" /> During his reign it was not uncommon to see students, suspected government critics or rebel sympathisers hanging from lampposts. Mengistu himself is alleged to have murdered opponents by garroting or shooting them, saying that he was leading by example.<ref name="Red Terror">[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3-2501253,00.html Guilty of genocide: the leader who unleashed a 'Red Terror' on Africa] by Jonathan Clayton, [[The Times|The Times Online]], 13 December 2006</ref> |
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====Uganda==== |
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=====Idi Amin's regime===== |
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After [[Idi Amin Dada]] overthrew the regime of [[Milton Obote]] in 1971, he declared the [[Acholi people|Acholi]] and [[Lango people|Lango]] tribes enemies, as Obote was a Lango and he saw the fact that they dominated the army as a threat.<ref name="Ugandagenocide">{{cite web |title=UGANDA 1971-1985 |url=https://combatgenocide.org/?page_id=91 |website=The Combat Genocide Association}}</ref> In January 1972, Amin issued an order to the Ugandan army ordering that they assemble and kill all Acholi or Lango soldiers, and then commanded that all Acholi and Lango be rounded up and confined within army barracks, where they were either slaughtered by the soldiers or killed when the Ugandan air force bombed the barracks.<ref name="Ugandagenocide">{{cite web |title=UGANDA 1971-1985 |url=https://combatgenocide.org/?page_id=91 |website=The Combat Genocide Association}}</ref> |
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=====Bush War (1981-1985)===== |
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The genocide under Amin would later lead to reprisals by [[Milton Obote]]'s regime during the [[Ugandan Bush War]], resulting in widespread human rights abuses which primarily targeted the [[Baganda]] people.<ref name="Ugandagenocide">{{cite web |title=UGANDA 1971-1985 |url=https://combatgenocide.org/?page_id=91 |website=The Combat Genocide Association}}</ref> These abuses included the forced removal of 750,000 civilians from the area of the then Luweero District, including present-day Kiboga, Kyankwanzi, Nakaseke, and others. They were moved into refugee camps controlled by the military. Many civilians outside the camps, in what came to be known as the "Luweero triangle", were continuously abused as "guerrilla sympathizers". The International Committee of the Red Cross has estimated that by July 1985, the Obote regime had been responsible for more than 300,000 civilian deaths across Uganda.<ref>Ofcansky, Thomas P. (1999). Uganda : tarnished pearl of Africa. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. p. 55. {{ISBN|9781435601451}}. OCLC 174221322.</ref><ref>Seftel, Adam, ed. (2010) [1st pub. 1994]. Uganda: The Bloodstained Pearl of Africa and Its Struggle for Peace. From the Pages of Drum. Kampala: Fountain Publishers. {{ISBN|978-9970-02-036-2}}. |
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"Uganda: Obote's Dimming Prospects" (PDF). Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. 2012 [1st pub. 1984]. https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP85S00317R000200030004-2.pdf pp. 265–267.</ref> |
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==== Ba'athist Iraq ==== |
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{{Main|Ba'athism|Ba'ath Party|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region|Ba'athist Iraq}} |
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{{See also|Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq}} |
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===== Genocide of Kurds ===== |
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{{See also|Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in North Iraq|Persecution of Feyli Kurds under Saddam Hussein|Anfal genocide|1988 Anfal campaign}} |
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On 23 December 2005, a Dutch court delivered its ruling in a case which was brought against [[Frans van Anraat]], who had previously supplied chemicals to Iraq. The court ruled that "[it] thinks and considers it legally and convincingly proven that the Kurdish population meets the requirement under the genocide convention as an ethnic group. The court has no other conclusion than that these attacks were committed with the intent to destroy the Kurdish population of Iraq." Because van Anraat supplied the chemicals before 16 March 1988, the date of the [[Halabja poison gas attack]] he was guilty of a war crime but not guilty of [[complicity in genocide]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Anne|last=Penketh|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/dutch-court-says-gassing-of-iraqi-kurds-was-genocide-520599.html|title=Dutch court says gassing of Iraqi Kurds was 'genocide'|newspaper=[[The Independent]]|date=24 December 2005|access-date=17 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/dutch-man-sentenced-for-role-in-gassing-death-of-kurds-1.521820|title=Dutch man sentenced for role in gassing death of Kurds|work=[[CBC News]]|date=23 December 2005|access-date=17 April 2016}}</ref> |
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===== Genocide of Marsh Arabs ===== |
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{{See also|Shia Islam in Iraq|Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes}} |
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The water diversion plan for the [[Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes]] was accompanied by a series of [[propaganda]] articles by the Iraqi regime which were directed against the [[Marsh Arabs|Ma'dan]],<ref name="fisk">[[Robert Fisk]], ''The Great War for Civilisation'', Harper, London 2005, p. 844</ref> and the [[wetlands]] were systematically converted into a [[desert]], forcing the residents out of their settlements in the region. The western [[Hammar Marshes]] and the Qurnah or [[Central Marshes]] became completely desiccated, while the eastern [[Hawizeh Marshes (Iraq/Iran)|Hawizeh Marshes]] dramatically shrank. Furthermore, villages in the marshes were attacked and burnt down and there were reports of the water being deliberately poisoned.<ref name="unep2">,[http://www.grid.unep.ch/activities/sustainable/tigris/mesopotamia.pdf The Mesopotamian Marshlands: Demise of an Ecosystem] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215044941/http://www.grid.unep.ch/activities/sustainable/tigris/mesopotamia.pdf |date=15 December 2017 }} [[UNEP]], p. 44</ref> |
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The majority of the [[Marsh Arabs|Maʻdān]] were either displaced to areas which were adjacent to the drained marshes, abandoning their traditional lifestyle in favour of conventional agriculture, or they were displaced to towns and camps which were located in other areas of Iraq. An estimated 80,000 to 120,000 of them fled to refugee camps in [[Iran]].<ref name="Marsh">{{cite web |last=Rojas-Burke |first=Joe |url=http://www.simplysharing.com/sumerians.htm |title=Iraq's Marsh Arabs, Modern Sumerians |publisher=The Oregonian |website=simplysharing.com |date=14 May 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527021202/http://www.simplysharing.com/sumerians.htm |archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> [[Marsh Arabs|The Marsh Arabs]], who numbered about half a million in the 1950s, have dwindled to as few as 20,000 in Iraq. Only 1,600 of them were estimated to still be living on traditional ''dibins'' by 2003.<ref name="Colep13">Cole, p. 13</ref> |
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Besides the general UN-imposed [[Gulf war sanctions]], there was no specific legal recourse for those people who were displaced by the drainage projects, nor was there prosecution of those who were involved in them. Article 2.c of the [[Genocide Convention]] (to which Iraq had acceded in 1951<ref>{{cite web|title=United Nations Treaty Collection: Chapter IV Human Rights: 1. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide|url=https://treaties.un.org/PAGES/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-1&chapter=4&clang=_en|website=treaties.un.org|access-date=4 February 2017}}</ref>) forbids "deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part." Additionally, the [[Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868|Saint Petersburg Declaration]] says that "the only legitimate object which States should endeavour to accomplish during war is to weaken the military forces of the enemy", a provision potentially violated by the Ba'athist government as part of their campaign against the insurgents which had taken refuge in the marshlands.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Iraqi push to complete strategic 'Third River'|url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/iraqi-push-to-complete-strategic-third-river-1580538.html |access-date=28 September 2015|date = 30 August 1992 }}</ref> |
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====People's Republic of China==== |
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{{see|Ethnic issues in China|Human rights in China}} |
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=====Tibet===== |
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{{further|History of Tibet (1950–present)|Human rights in Tibet|Sinicization of Tibet}} |
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On 5 June 1959 Shri Purshottam Trikamdas, Senior Advocate, [[Supreme Court of India]], presented a report on Tibet to the [[International Commission of Jurists]] (an NGO). The press conference address on the report states in paragraph 26: |
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{{quote|From the facts stated above the following conclusions may be drawn: ... (e) To examine all such evidence obtained by this Committee and from other sources and to take appropriate action thereon and in particular to determine whether the crime of Genocide—for which already there is strong presumption—is established and, in that case, to initiate such action as envisaged by the Genocide Convention of 1948 and by the Charter of the United Nations for suppression of these acts and appropriate redress;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icj.org/news.php3?id_article=3415&lang=en|title=Tibet - Summary of a Report on Tibet: Submitted to the International Commission of Jurists by Shri Purshottam Trikamdas, Senior Advocate, Supreme Court of India|work=[[International Commission of Jurists]]|date=5 June 1959|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927223610/http://www.icj.org/news.php3?id_article=3415&lang=en|archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref>}} |
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The report of the [[International Commission of Jurists]] (1960) claimed that there was only "cultural" genocide. ICJ Report (1960) page 346: "The committee found that acts of genocide had been committed in Tibet in an attempt to destroy the Tibetans as a religious group, and that such acts are acts of genocide independently of any conventional obligation. The committee did not find that there was sufficient proof of the destruction of Tibetans as a race, nation or ethnic group as such by methods that can be regarded as genocide in international law." |
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However, cultural genocide is also contested by academics such as [[Barry Sautman]].<ref name="Sautman">{{cite journal|last=Sautman|first=Barry|date=October 2006|title=Colonialism, genocide, and Tibet|journal=Asian Ethnicity|volume=7|issue=3|pages=243–65|doi=10.1080/14631360600926949|s2cid=145798586}}</ref> [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]] is the everyday language of the Tibetan people.<ref name="GoldsteinSiebenschuh1997">{{cite book|first1=Melvyn|last1=Goldstein|first2=William|last2=Siebenschuh|first3=Tashi|last3=Tsering|title=The Struggle for Modern Tibet: The Autobiography of Tashi Tsering|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ujvo4OMT-uAC|date=21 February 1997|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-3178-7}} |
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* {{cite book|first1=Melvyn C.|last1=Goldstein|first2=Gelek|last2=Rimpoche|title=A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernt00melv|date=1 January 1989|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06140-8}}</ref> |
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The [[Central Tibetan Administration]] and other Tibetans who work in the exile media have claimed that approximately 1.2 million Tibetans have died of [[starvation]], violence, or other indirect causes since 1950.<ref>[http://www.thetibetpost.com/news/exile/1884-cta-chinese-government-covering-up-dark-facts?lang=en CTA: Chinese Government Covering Up Dark Facts<!-- Bot generated title -->] |
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* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-16689779 BBC News – Tibet country profile – Overview<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> White states that "In all, over one million Tibetans, a fifth of Tibet's total population, had died as a result of the Chinese occupation right up until the end of the [[Cultural Revolution]]."<ref name="White2002">{{cite book|first=David|last=White|title=Himalayan Tragedy: The Story of Tibet's Panchen Lamas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNIKAAAAYAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Tibet Society of the UK|isbn=978-0-9542179-0-7|page=98}}</ref> This figure has been refuted by Patrick French, the former Director of the Free Tibet Campaign in London.<ref>{{cite news|first=Patrick|last=French|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/22/opinion/22french.html?_r=0|title=He May Be a God, but He's No Politician|work=The New York Times|date=22 March 2008|access-date=13 February 2016}}</ref> |
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Jones argued that the [[struggle session]]s which were held after the crushing of the [[1959 Tibetan uprising]] may be considered genocide, based on the claim that the conflict resulted in 92,000 deaths.{{sfn|Jones|2010|pp= 95–96}} However, according to tibetologist [[Tom Grunfeld]], "the veracity of such a claim is difficult to verify."<ref name="Grunfeld1996">{{cite book|author=A. Tom Grunfeld|author-link=A. Tom Grunfeld|title=The Making of Modern Tibet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odyxWQGD2eoC&pg=PA247|access-date=14 February 2016|year=1996|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-3455-9|page=247}}</ref> |
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In 2013, Spain's top criminal court decided to hear a case which was brought before it by Tibetan rights activists who alleged that [[Chinese Communist Party]]'s former [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|general secretary]] [[Hu Jintao]] had committed genocide in Tibet.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24490004 |title=BBC News – Spain probes Hu Jintao 'genocide' in Tibet court case |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=11 October 2013 |access-date=11 March 2014}}</ref> Spain's High Court dropped this case in June 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-28000937 |title=Spain drops 'genocide' case against China's Tibet leaders |work=Bbc.com |date=24 June 2014 |access-date=13 February 2016}}</ref> |
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=====Xinjiang re-education camps===== |
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{{main|Xinjiang re-education camps}} |
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{{see also|Xinjiang conflict|Uyghur genocide}} |
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Since 2017, [[Xinjiang re-education camps|re-education camps]] have been established in [[Xinjiang]] by [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP General Secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]]'s [[Xi Jinping Administration|administration]] and since their establishment, they have been controlled by [[Party Committee Secretary|CCP committee secretary]], [[Chen Quanguo]]. These camps are reportedly operated outside the [[Legal system of China|legal system]]; many [[Uyghurs]] have reportedly been interned [[Arrest without warrant|without trial]] and no charges have been levied against them. |
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====Brazil==== |
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{{See also|Genocide of indigenous peoples in Brazil}} |
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The [[Helmet Massacre]] of the [[Tikuna people]] which occurred in 1988 was initially labeled a [[homicide]]. During the massacre four people died, nineteen were wounded, and ten disappeared. Since 1994 Brazilian courts have labeled the episode a genocide. Thirteen men were convicted of genocide in 2001. In November 2004, after an appeal was filed before Brazil's federal court, the man initially found guilty of hiring men to carry out the genocide was acquitted, and the killers had their initial sentences of 15–25 years reduced to 12 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brazzilmag.com/content/view/711/41/|title=Brazilian Justice Acquits Man Sentenced for 1988 Massacre of Indians|work=Brazzil Magazine|date=12 November 2004|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050209104914/http://www.brazzilmag.com/content/view/711/41/|archive-date=9 February 2005}}</ref> |
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In November 2005, during an investigation which was code-named [[Operation Rio Pardo]], Mario Lucio Avelar, a Brazilian public prosecutor in [[Cuiabá]], told [[Survival International]] that he believed that there were sufficient grounds to prosecute the perpetrators of the genocide of the [[Rio Pardo Indians]]. In November 2006 twenty-nine people were arrested and others were implicated, such as a former police commander and the governor of [[Mato Grosso]] state.<ref>[[Eamonn McCann]]. [https://archive.today/20120724071310/http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/columnists/eamon-mccann/article2578919.ece Longing for a saviour] [[Belfast Telegraph]], 24 May 2007 |
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* [http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/1258 Top officials accused of genocide of Indians], [[Survival International]], 13 December 2005</ref> |
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In 2006 the Brazilian Supreme Federal Court (STF) unanimously reaffirmed its ruling that the crime which is known as the [[Haximu massacre]] (perpetrated against the [[Yanomami]] Indians in 1993)<ref name="SI-1786">{{cite web|url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/1786|title=Supreme Court upholds genocide ruling|work=[[Survival International]]|date=4 August 2006|access-date=10 April 2016}}</ref> was a genocide and ruled that the decision of a federal court to sentence miners to 19 years in prison for genocide in connection with other offenses, such as smuggling and illegal mining, was valid.<ref name="SI-1786"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cimi.org.br/?system=news&action=read&id=2049&eid=275|title=Federal Court is competent to judge the Haximu genocide|work=Cimi – Indianist Missionary Council|date=7 August 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709034346/http://www.cimi.org.br/?system=news&action=read&id=2049&eid=275|archive-date=9 July 2007}}</ref> |
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====Zimbabwe==== |
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The [[Gukurahundi]] was a series of massacres of [[Northern Ndebele people|Ndebele]] civilians which were carried out by the [[Zimbabwe National Army]] from early 1983 to late 1987. Its name is derived from a [[Shona language]] term which reads "the early rain which washes away the [[chaff]] before the spring rains" when it is loosely translated into English.<ref name="watch">Nyarota, Geoffrey. ''Against the Grain''. Page 134.</ref> During the [[Rhodesian Bush War]] two rival nationalist parties, [[Robert Mugabe]]'s [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU) and [[Joshua Nkomo]]'s [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU), had emerged in order to challenge [[Rhodesia]]'s predominantly white government.<ref name="zimstudy">{{cite book|last=Nelson|first=Harold|title=Zimbabwe: A Country Study|pages=243–245}}</ref> ZANU initially defined ''Gukurahundi'' as an ideological strategy which was aimed at carrying the war into major settlements and individual homesteads.<ref name="Bob">{{cite book|last=Mugabe|first=Robert|title=1979, the year of the people's storm: Gore re Gukarahundi|asin=B0007C68IO|pages=28–29}}</ref> Following Mugabe's ascension to power, his government remained threatened by "dissidents" – disgruntled former guerrillas and supporters of ZAPU.<ref name="CCJP">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/BreakingTheSilenceBuildingTruePeace|title=Breaking the Silence, Building True Peace: Report on the 1980s Disturbances in Matabeleland and the Midlands|publisher=Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe and the Legal Resources Foundation (Zimbabwe)|year=1997|editor=Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe|location=Harare, Zimbabwe|oclc=40480429|access-date=20 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101153012/https://archive.org/details/BreakingTheSilenceBuildingTruePeace|archive-date=1 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> ZANU mainly recruited from the majority [[Shona people]], whereas ZAPU received its greatest amount of support among the minority Ndebele. In early 1983, the North Korean-trained [[Zimbabwean Fifth Brigade|Fifth Brigade]], an [[infantry]] [[Brigade (military)|brigade]] of the [[Zimbabwe National Army]] (ZNA), launched a crackdown against dissidents in [[Matabeleland North Province]], a homeland of the Ndebele. Over the following two years, thousands of Ndebele were either detained by government forces and marched to re-education camps or they were summarily executed. Although there are different estimates, the consensus of the [[International Association of Genocide Scholars]] (IAGS) is that more than 20,000 people were killed. The IAGS has classified the massacres as a genocide.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/19/mugabe-zimbabwe-gukurahundi-massacre-matabeleland|title=Zimbabwe: new documents claim to prove Mugabe ordered Gukurahundi killings|first=Stuart|last=Doran|date=19 May 2015|via=www.theguardian.com}}</ref> |
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====Post-Soviet Afghanistan==== |
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{{further|History of Afghanistan (1978–1992)|Soviet–Afghan War|History of Afghanistan (1992–present)|Human rights in Afghanistan}} |
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=====Massacres of Hazaras and other groups by the Taliban===== |
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{{further|Persecution of Hazara people}} |
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Between 1996 and 2001, 15 massacre campaigns were committed by the [[Taliban]] and [[Al-Qaeda]]; the [[United Nations]] stated: "These are the same type of war crimes as were committed in [[Bosnian genocide|Bosnia]] and should be prosecuted in international courts"<ref name="Newsday 2001">{{cite news|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2001-10-12/news/0110120312_1_taliban-fighters-massacres-in-recent-years-mullah-mohammed-omar|title=Taliban massacres outlined for UN |agency= Newsday|date=October 2001 |work=Chicago Tribune}}</ref> Following the 1997 massacre of 3,000 Taliban prisoners by [[Abdul Malik Pahlawan]] in [[Mazar-i-Sharif]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1615824.stm#pahlawan |title=Afghan powerbrokers: Who's who |work=[[BBC News]] |date= 19 November 2001|access-date=2011-04-01}}</ref> (which the Hazaras did not commit<ref name="shariffethnickilling">{{cite news |last1=Cooper |first1=Kenneth J. |title=TALIBAN MASSACRE BASED ON ETHNICITY |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1998/11/28/taliban-massacre-based-on-ethnicity/efe15f81-abed-4e57-96f1-046cc59d1d48/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031055613/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1998/11/28/taliban-massacre-based-on-ethnicity/efe15f81-abed-4e57-96f1-046cc59d1d48/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 October 2019 |agency=The Washington Post |date=28 November 1998}}</ref>) thousands of Hazara men and boys were massacred by other Taliban members in the same city in August 1998.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports98/afghan/Afrepor0.htm |title = The Massacre in Mazar-I Sharif}}</ref> After the attack, Mullah Niazi, the commander of the attack and the new governor of Mazar, declared from several mosques in the city in separate speeches: |
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<blockquote>Last year you rebelled against us and killed us. From all your homes you shot at us. Now we are here to deal with you. (...)<br />[[Hazaras]] are not [[Muslim]], they are [[Shia Islam|Shia]]. They are ''[[kafir|kofr]]'' ([[infidel]]s). The Hazaras killed our force here, and now we have to kill Hazaras. (...)<br />If you do not show your loyalty, we will burn your houses, and we will kill you. You either accept to be Muslims or leave Afghanistan. (...)<br />[W]herever you [Hazaras] go we will catch you. If you go up, we will pull you down by your feet; if you hide below, we will pull you up by your hair. (...)<br />If anyone is hiding Hazaras in his house he too will be taken away. What [Hizb-i] Wahdat and the Hazaras did to the Talibs, we did worse...as many as they killed, we killed more.<ref name = "hrw.org-Niazi">{{Cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports98/afghan/Afrepor0-03.htm#P186_38364 |title=Incitement of violence against Hazaras by governor Niazi |work=Afghanistan, the massacre in Mazar-e-Sharif |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |date=November 1998 |access-date=29 September 2018}}</ref></blockquote>In these killings 2,000<ref name="hrwmazarmassa">{{cite web |title=THE MASSACRE IN MAZAR-I SHARIF |url=https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports98/afghan/Afrepor0.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605152618/https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports98/afghan/Afrepor0.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-06-05 |website=Human Rights Watch |publisher=November 1998 Vol. 10, No. 7 (C)}}</ref><ref name="shariffethnickilling"/> to 5,000,<ref name="shariffethnickilling"/> or perhaps up to 20,000<ref name=SHARIFFMASSACRE>{{cite news |last1=Gizabi |first1=Akram |title=Opinion: US–Taliban peace talks betray the trust of the Afghan people |url=https://www.militarytimes.com/opinion/2019/07/14/opinion-ustaliban-peace-talks-betray-the-trust-of-the-afghan-people/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031050612/https://www.militarytimes.com/opinion/2019/07/14/opinion-ustaliban-peace-talks-betray-the-trust-of-the-afghan-people/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-10-31 |agency=Military Times |ref=Mazarmassacres}}</ref> Hazara were systematically executed across the city.<ref name="shariffethnickilling"/><ref name=SHARIFFMASSACRE/> Niamatullah Ibrahimi described the killings as "an act of genocide at full ferocity."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ibrahimi |first1=Niamatullah |title=DIVIDE AND RULE: STATE PENETRATION IN HAZARAJAT (AFGHANISTAN) FROM THE MONARCHY TO THE TALIBAN |journal=Crisis States Research Center |date=January 2009 |volume=Working Paper 42 - Development as State Making - |pages=14 |url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/95939/WP42.2.pdf}}</ref> The Taliban searched for combat age males by conducting door to door searches of Hazara households,<ref name="shariffethnickilling"/> shooting them and slitting their throats right in front of their families.<ref name="shariffethnickilling"/> [[Human rights]] organizations reported that the dead were lying on the streets for weeks before the Taliban allowed their burial due to stench and fear of epidemics. There were also reports of [[Hazaras|Hazara]] women being abducted and kept as [[Sexual slavery|sex slaves]].<ref name="hrwmazarmassa"/> The [[Hazara people|Hazara]] claim the [[Taliban]] executed 15,000 of their people in their campaign through northern and central Afghanistan.;<ref name="bamiyanmassacre">{{cite news |last1=Caroll |first1=Rory |title=Pits reveal evidence of massacre by Taliban |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/apr/08/afghanistan.unitednations |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031054342/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/apr/08/afghanistan.unitednations |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 October 2019 |access-date=30 Oct 2019 |agency=The Guardian |date=7 Apr 2002}}</ref> the United Nation investigated three mass graves allegedly containing the victims in 2002.<ref name="bamiyanmassacre"/> The persecution of Hazaras has been called [[genocide]] by media outlets.<ref name="gierhazar">{{cite news |last1=Gier |first1=Nick |title=The Genocide of the Hazaras |url=https://sandpointreader.com/the-genocide-of-the-hazaras/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031070614/https://sandpointreader.com/the-genocide-of-the-hazaras/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 October 2019 |agency=Sandpoint Reader |date=3 January 2016}}</ref> |
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====Democratic Republic of the Congo==== |
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During the [[Second Congo War|Congo Civil War]] (1998–2003), [[pygmies]] were hunted down and eaten by both sides in the conflict, who regarded them as subhuman.<ref name=Timesonline>{{cite news|first=Jonathan|last=Clayton|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article402970.ece|title=Pygmies struggle to survive in war zone where abuse is routine|work=TimesOnline.com|date=16 December 2004|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525095020/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article402970.ece|archive-date=25 May 2010}}</ref> Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of [[Mbuti]] pygmies, asked the [[UN Security Council]] to recognize [[cannibalism]] as both a crime against humanity and an act of genocide.<ref>{{cite web |title=PRESS CONFERENCE BY INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO |url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2003/indigenousDRCpc.doc.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2933524.stm|title=DR Congo pygmies appeal to UN|agency=BBC News|date=23 May 2003|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref> Minority Rights Group International reported evidence of mass killings, cannibalism and rape. The report, which labeled these events as a campaign of extermination, linked the violence to beliefs about special powers held by the Bambuti.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3869489.stm|title=DR Congo pygmies 'exterminated'|work=BBC News|date=6 July 2004|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref> In [[Ituri district]], rebel forces ran an operation code-named "[[Effacer le tableau]]" (to wipe the slate clean). The aim of the operation, according to witnesses, was to rid the forest of pygmies.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irinnews.org/InDepthMain.aspx?InDepthId=9&ReportId=58647 |title=Africa: Pygmy rights and continued discrimination |work=irinnews.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081117203329/http://www.irinnews.org/InDepthMain.aspx?InDepthId=9&ReportId=58647 |archive-date=17 November 2008 }}<br> |
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{{cite news|first=Basildon|last=Peta|author-link=Basildon Peta|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/rebels-eating-pygmies-as-mass-slaughter-continues-in-congo-despite-peace-agreement-601088.html|title=Rebels 'eating Pygmies' as mass slaughter continues in Congo despite peace agreement|newspaper=The Independent|location=Beni, Congo|date=9 January 2003|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101226172041/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/rebels-eating-pygmies-as-mass-slaughter-continues-in-congo-despite-peace-agreement-601088.html|archive-date=26 December 2010|df=dmy}}</ref> |
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=====Hutus===== |
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[[File:Ntrama Church Altar.jpg|thumb|Over 5,000 people who were seeking refuge in the [[Ntarama Genocide Memorial Centre|Ntarama church]] were killed by grenade, machete or rifle, or they were burnt alive.]] |
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{{Main|Rwandan genocide|Hutu genocide}} |
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In 2010 a report accused [[Rwanda]]'s [[Tutsi]]-led army of committing genocide against ethnic Hutus. The report accused the [[Rwandan Army]] and allied Congolese rebels of killing tens of thousands of ethnic [[Hutu]] refugees from Rwanda and locals in systematic attacks which were committed between 1996 and 1997. The government of Rwanda rejected the accusation.<ref>{{cite news|first=Max|last=Delany|title=Rwanda dismisses UN report detailing possible Hutu genocide in Congo|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2010/0827/Rwanda-dismisses-UN-report-detailing-possible-Hutu-genocide-in-Congo|publisher=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|date=27 August 2010|access-date=10 April 2016}}<br>{{cite news|title=Rwanda's Kagame rejects as 'absurd' genocide assertions|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/africa/09/16/rwanda.kagame.genocide/index.html|work=CNN|date=17 September 2010|access-date=10 April 2016}}</ref> |
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====Somalia==== |
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=====1988–1991 Isaaq genocide===== |
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{{Main|Isaaq genocide}} |
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The Isaaq genocide or "(Sometimes referred to as the Hargeisa Holocaust)"<ref>{{Cite journal |last= Ingiriis |first= Mohamed Haji |date= 2016-07-02 |title= "We Swallowed the State as the State Swallowed Us": The Genesis, Genealogies, and Geographies of Genocides in Somalia|journal= African Security |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages= 237–258 |doi= 10.1080/19392206.2016.1208475 |s2cid= 148145948 |issn=1939-2206 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/viewfromfoothill0000mull|url-access= registration|page= [https://archive.org/details/viewfromfoothill0000mull/page/504 504]|quote= Siad barre's holocaust.|title=A View From The Foothills: The Diaries of Chris Mullin |last=Mullin |first= Chris |date= 2010 |publisher= Profile Books |isbn= 978-1847651860 }}</ref> was the systematic, state-sponsored massacre of [[Isaaq]] civilians between 1988 and 1991 by the [[Somali Democratic Republic]] under the dictatorship of [[Siad Barre]].<ref name="Mburu">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7w8VAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Based+on+the+totality+of+evidence+collected+in+Somaliland%22|title=Past human rights abuses in Somalia: report of a preliminary study conducted for the United Nations (OHCHR/UNDP-Somalia)|last1=Mburu|first1=Chris|last2=Rights|first2=United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human|last3=Office|first3=United Nations Development Programme Somalia Country|date=2002-01-01|publisher=s.n.}}</ref> A number of genocide scholars (including [[Israel Charny]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NtAPAQAAMAAJ&q=isaak+1988+somalia+genocide|title=Encyclopedia of genocide|last=Charny|first=Israel W.|date=1999|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9780874369281}}</ref> [[Gregory Stanton]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Countries at Risk Report|last=Gregory H.|first=Stanton|publisher=Genocide Watch|year=2012|location=http://www.genocidewatch.org/images/Countries_at_Risk_Report_2012.pdf}}</ref> Deborah Mayersen,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gza7-Qxe5YsC&pg=PT210|title=Genocide and Mass Atrocities in Asia: Legacies and Prevention|last1=Mayersen|first1=Deborah|last2=Pohlman|first2=Annie|date=2013-06-03|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135047702}}</ref> and [[Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)|Adam Jones]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZybbAAAAMAAJ&q=%22by+1988,+the+regime+had+committed+a+well-documented+and+genocidal%22|title=Genocide, war crimes and the West: history and complicity|last=Jones|first=Adam|date=2017|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1842771914}}</ref>) as well as international media outlets, such as ''[[The Guardian]]'',<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XWRyAAAAMAAJ&q=Guardian+1989|title=Comprehending and mastering African conflicts: the search for sustainable peace and good governance|last=Adedeji|first=Adebayo|author2=African Centre for Development and Strategic Studies (Ijebu-Ode Nigeria)|date=1999|publisher=Zed Books, in association with African Centre for Development and Stratetgic Studies|isbn=978-1856497626}}</ref> ''[[The Washington Post]]''<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1990/07/01/genocide-in-the-horn-of-africa/b6f59cf0-5061-4223-82fb-35e6a7109b46/|title=Genocide in the Horn of Africa|last1=Cyllah|first1=Almami|date=1990-07-01|access-date=2017-01-17|last2=Prendergast|first2=John|issn=0190-8286|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> and [[Al Jazeera]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/peopleandpower/2016/06/somaliland-kill-crows-160616083822713.html|title=Somaliland: Kill All but the Crows|date=16 June 2016|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=21 January 2017}}</ref> among others, have referred to the case as one of genocide. In 2001, the [[United Nations]] commissioned an investigation on past human rights violations in Somalia,<ref name="Mburu" /> specifically to find out if "crimes of international jurisdiction (i.e. war crimes, crimes against humanity or genocide) had been perpetrated during the country's civil war". The investigation was commissioned jointly by the [[United Nations]] Co-ordination Unit (UNCU) and the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]]. The investigation concluded with a report confirming the crime of genocide to have taken place against the Isaaqs in Somalia.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7w8VAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Based+on+the+totality+of+evidence+collected+in+Somaliland%22|title=Past human rights abuses in Somalia: report of a preliminary study conducted for the United Nations (OHCHR/UNDP-Somalia)|last1=Mburu|first1=Chris|last2=Rights|first2=United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human|last3=Office|first3=United Nations Development Programme Somalia Country|date=2002-01-01|publisher=s.n.}}</ref> |
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===== 2007 Bantu attacks ===== |
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In 2007 attacks on Somalia's [[Somali Bantu|Bantu population]] and [[Jubba Valley]] dwellers from 1991 onwards were reported, noting that "Somalia is a rare case in which genocidal acts were carried out by militias in the utter absence of a governing state structure."<ref>Catherine L. Besteman, [http://hornofafrica.ssrc.org/Besteman/ "Genocide in Somalia's Jubba Valley and Somali Bantu Refugees in the U.S"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327033104/http://hornofafrica.ssrc.org/Besteman/ |date=27 March 2016 }} 9 April 2007 Accessed 25 January 2011</ref> |
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<!-- [[WP:NFCC]] violation: [[File:Black July 1983 Colombo.jpg|thumb|240x240px|[[Black July|Black july riots]] in Colombo carried out by Sinhalese mobs against Tamils after allegedly being incited by political groups after the [[Four Four Bravo]] ambush]] --> |
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====Chechnya==== |
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[[File:Fosse commune de Saadi-Kotar.jpg|thumb|A Russian soldier stands by a mass grave of Chechens in Komsomolskoye, 2000]] |
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{{main|Chechen–Russian conflict|Human rights in Russia}} |
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{{see also|First Chechen War|Second Chechen War|Casualties of the Second Chechen War}} |
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Following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991, [[Chechnya]] declared its independence from the [[Russian Federation]]. Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]] refused to accept Chechnya's independence; subsequently, the conflict between Chechnya and the Russian Federation escalated until it reached its climax when Russian troops invaded Chechnya and launched the [[First Chechen War]] in December 1994, and in September 1999, they invaded Chechnya again and launched the [[Second Chechen War]]. By 2009, Chechen resistance was crushed and the war ended with Russia retaking control of Chechnya. Numerous [[war crime]]s were committed during both conflicts.<ref>{{cite web| title=War Crimes In Chechnya and the Response of the West |publisher=Human Rights Watch| date=29 February 2000| url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2000/02/29/war-crimes-chechnya-and-response-west| access-date=18 November 2018}}</ref> [[Amnesty International]] estimated that in the First Chechen War alone, between 20,000 and 30,000 Chechens were killed, mostly in indiscriminate attacks which were launched against them by Russian forces in densely populated areas.<ref>{{cite web| title=Brief summary of concerns about human rights violations in the Chechen Republic |publisher=Amnesty International| date=April 1996| url=https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/168000/eur460201996en.pdf| access-date=18 November 2018}}</ref> |
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Some scholars estimated that the Russian government's brutal attacks against such a small ethnic group amounted to a crime of genocide.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Haque|first=Mozammel |journal=Pakistan Institute of International Affairs|year=1999|title=Genocide in Chechnya and the World Community| jstor=41394437|volume=52|issue=4|pages=15–29 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Jones|first=Adam|year=2011| doi=10.1080/14623528.2011.554083| title=Let Our Fame Be Great: Journeys Among the Defiant People of the Caucasus| journal=Journal of Genocide Research|volume =13|issue=1|pages=199–202|s2cid=71276051}}</ref> The German-based NGO [[Society for Threatened Peoples]] accused the Russian authorities of genocide in its 2005 report on Chechnya.<ref>Sarah Reinke: ''Schleichender Völkermord in Tschetschenien. Verschwindenlassen – ethnische Verfolgung in Russland – Scheitern der internationalen Politik.'' Gesellschaft für bedrohte Völker, 2005, p. 8 ([http://www.gfbv.de/show_file.php?type=report&property=download&id=15 PDF] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812015310/http://www.gfbv.de/show_file.php?type=report&property=download&id=15 |date=12 August 2014 }})</ref> |
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====Sri Lanka==== |
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{{main|Human rights in Sri Lanka}} |
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=====Tamil genocide===== |
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{{See also|War crimes during the final stages of the Sri Lankan Civil War|List of attacks on civilians attributed to Sri Lankan government forces}} |
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The [[Sri Lankan military]] was accused of committing [[International human rights law|human rights]] violations during [[Sri Lanka]]'s 26-year [[Sri Lankan Civil War|civil war]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Recurring Nightmare|url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/srilanka0308web.pdf|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|page=16|date=March 2008}} |
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* {{cite web|title=Factual Supplement to the Report to Congress on Measures Taken by the Government of Sri Lanka and International Bodies To Investigate and Hold Accountable Violators of International Humanitarian and Human Rights Law|url=https://www.state.gov/j/gcj/srilanka/releases/187409.htm|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|date=4 April 2012|access-date=24 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180520202657/https://www.state.gov/j/gcj/srilanka/releases/187409.htm|archive-date=20 May 2018|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> A [[Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka|United Nation's Panel of Experts]] looking into these alleged violations found "credible allegations, which if proven, indicate that serious violations of international humanitarian law and international human rights law were committed by both the Government of Sri Lanka and the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam|LTTE]], some of which would amount to war crimes and crimes against humanity".<ref>{{cite book|title=Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka|publisher=United Nations|url=https://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/Sri_Lanka/POE_Report_Full.pdf|date=31 March 2011}}</ref> Some activists and politicians also accused the [[Sri Lankan government]] which is dominated by [[Sinhalese people]] (who predominantly practice [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]] of carrying out a genocide against the minority [[Sri Lankan Tamil people]], who are mostly [[Hinduism|Hindu]], both during and after the war.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hinduexistence.org/tag/90-hindus-are-killed-in-tamil-genocide-in-sri-lanka/ |title=Tamil Genocide in Sri Lanka, Clearly 90% are Hindus… |work=Struggle for Hindu Existence.org |date=16 March 2012 |access-date=13 February 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127011318/http://hinduexistence.org/tag/90-hindus-are-killed-in-tamil-genocide-in-sri-lanka/ |archive-date=27 January 2013}}</ref> |
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[[Bruce Fein]] alleged that Sri Lanka's leaders committed genocide,<ref>{{cite news|title=Sri Lankan army commanders 'assassinated surrendering Tamils'|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/srilanka/8964147/Sri-Lankan-army-commanders-assassinated-surrendering-Tamils.html|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=18 December 2011|first1=Alex|last1=Spillius|first2=Emanuel|last2=Stoakes|location=London}}</ref> along with Tamil Parliamentarian [[Suresh Premachandran]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Leading Sri Lanka Tamil Politician Claims 'Genocide' by Military|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-2009-05-12-voa4-68688552/409001.html|newspaper=[[Voice of America]]|date=12 May 2009|access-date=18 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425203526/http://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-2009-05-12-voa4-68688552/409001.html|archive-date=25 April 2016|url-status=dead}}<br> |
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{{cite news|last=Gopalan|first=T. N.|title=TNA team in India|url=http://www.bbc.com/sinhala/news/story/2009/01/090112_tna_india.shtml|publisher=BBC Sinhala|date=12 January 2009|access-date=27 March 2016}}</ref> Refugees who escaped from Sri Lanka also stated that they fled from genocide,<ref>{{cite news|last=Allard|first=Tom|title=Tamil boat people fleeing 'genocide'|url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/tamil-boat-people-fleeing-genocide-20091014-gxgq.html|publisher=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|date=15 October 2009}}</ref> and various [[Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora]] groups echoed these accusations.<ref>{{cite news|last=Haviland|first=Charles|title=US calls for 'accountability' in Sri Lanka's war|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sinhala/news/story/2011/04/printable/110406_blake.shtml|publisher=BBC Sinhala|date=6 April 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108232607/http://www.bbc.com/sinhala/news/story/2011/04/printable/110406_blake.shtml|archive-date=8 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Surendiran|first=Suren|title=Britain and the slaughter of the Tamils|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/apr/21/sri-lanka-tamil-tigers-protest-parliament|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=21 April 2009|location=London|access-date=27 March 2016}}</ref> |
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In 2009, thousands of Tamils protested against the atrocities in cities all over the world. (See [[2009 Tamil diaspora protests]].)<ref>{{cite news|last=Taylor|first=Lesley Ciarula|title=Thousands protest Tamil 'genocide'|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2009/01/31/thousands_protest_tamil_genocide.html|newspaper=[[Toronto Star]]|date=31 January 2009}} |
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* {{cite news|title=Thousands march for Tamil rights|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8110837.stm|newspaper=[[BBC News]]|date=20 June 2009}}</ref> Various diaspora activists formed a group called [[Tamils Against Genocide]] to continue the protest.<ref>{{cite web|title=About TAG|url=http://www.tamilsagainstgenocide.org/AboutTAG.aspx|publisher=[[Tamils Against Genocide]]|access-date=24 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121124071338/http://www.tamilsagainstgenocide.org/AboutTAG.aspx|archive-date=24 November 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Legal action against Sri Lankan leaders for alleged genocide has been initiated. Norwegian human rights lawyer [[Harald Stabell]] filed a case in Norwegian courts against Sri Lankan President [[Mahinda Rajapaksa|Rajapaksa]] and other officials.<ref>{{cite news|title=War Crimes, Genocide Case Filed in Norway Courts|url=http://www.thesundayleader.lk/2011/05/15/war-crimes-genocide-case-filed-in-norway-courts/|newspaper=[[The Sunday Leader]]|date=15 May 2011}} |
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* {{cite news|title=War crime, genocide case against Rajapaksa placed in Norway courts|url=http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=79&artid=33918|newspaper=[[TamilNet]]|date=8 May 2011}}</ref> |
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Politicians in the Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]] also made accusations of genocide.<ref>{{cite news|title=Parties condemn "genocide of Sri Lankan Tamils"|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/article3037454.ece|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=23 December 2006|location=Chennai, India}} |
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* {{cite news|title=CPI to protest Lanka violence|url=http://www.bbc.com/sinhala/news/story/2008/09/080929_cpi_lanka.shtml|newspaper=[[BBC]] Sinhala|date=29 September 2008}}</ref> In 2008 and 2009 the [[List of Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu|Chief Minister]] of Tamil Nadu [[M. Karunanidhi]] repeatedly appealed to the [[Indian government]] to intervene to "stop the genocide of Tamils",<ref>{{cite news|title=Stop genocide of Sri Lankan Tamils|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/article1352331.ece|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=6 October 2008|location=Chennai, India}} |
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* {{cite news|last=Gopalan|first=T. N.|title=Send telegrams to Delhi – CM|url=http://www.bbc.com/sinhala/news/story/2008/10/081005_karunanidhi_telegrams.shtml|newspaper=[[BBC]] Sinhala|date=5 October 2008}} |
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* {{cite news|title=Help stop genocide, Karunanidhi tells Sonia|url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/04/10/stories/2009041054290400.htm|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=10 April 2009|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> while his successor [[J. Jayalalithaa]] called on the Indian government to bring Rajapaksa before international courts for genocide.<ref>{{cite news|title=Summon Mahinda to international court- Jayalalitha|url=http://www.bbc.com/sinhala/news/story/2011/05/110513_jayalalitha_mahinda.shtml|newspaper=[[BBC]] Sinhala|date=13 May 2011}}</ref> [[National Federation of Indian Women|The women's wing]] of the [[Communist Party of India]], passed a resolution in August 2012 finding that "Systematic sexual violence against Tamil women" by Sri Lankan forces constituted genocide, calling for an "independent international investigation".<ref>{{cite news|title=Women's conference in Tamil Nadu terms oppression of Eezham Tamils as genocide|url=http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=35453|newspaper=[[TamilNet]]|date=11 August 2012}}</ref> |
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In January 2010, a [[Permanent Peoples' Tribunal]] (PPT) held in [[Dublin]], Ireland, found Sri Lanka guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity, but it found insufficient evidence to justify the charge of genocide.<ref name=PTSL>{{cite web|title=People's Tribunal on Sri Lanka|url=http://warwithoutwitness.com/images/stories/news/25851626-people-s-tribunal-on-srilanka-final-report-jan-2010.pdf|publisher=[[Permanent Peoples' Tribunal]]|access-date=24 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108232606/http://warwithoutwitness.com/images/stories/news/25851626-people-s-tribunal-on-srilanka-final-report-jan-2010.pdf|archive-date=8 January 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Sri Lanka 'guilty' of war crimes |url=http://www.bbc.com/sinhala/news/story/2010/01/100117_dublin_tribunal.shtml|newspaper=BBC Sinhala|date=17 January 2010}}</ref> The tribunal requested a thorough investigation as some of the evidence indicated "possible acts of genocide".<ref name=PTSL/> Its panel found Sri Lanka guilty of genocide at its 7–10 December 2013 hearings in Berman, Germany. It also found that the US and UK were guilty of complicity. A decision on whether India, and other states, had also acted in complicity was withheld. PPT reported that LTTE could not be accurately characterized as "terrorist", stating that movements classified as "terrorist" because of their rebellion against a state, can become political entities recognized by the international community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ptsrilanka.org/verdict |title=Verdict |publisher=Ptsrilanka.org |access-date=11 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Dublin tribunal takes up genocide investigation|url=http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=35722|newspaper=[[TamilNet]]|date=3 November 2012}}</ref> The [[International Commission of Jurists]] stated that the [[Sri Lankan IDP camps|camps]] used to [[Internment|intern]] nearly 300,000 Tamils after the war's end may have breached the [[Genocide Convention|convention against genocide]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Sri Lankan camps breach convention against genocide|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-06-17/sri-lankan-camps-breach-convention-against-genocide/1323334|newspaper=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]|date=7 June 2009}}</ref> |
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In 2015, Sri Lanka's Tamil majority [[Northern Provincial Council|Northern Provincial Council (NPC)]] "passed a strongly worded resolution accusing successive governments in the island nation of committing 'genocide' against Tamils". |
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<ref>{{cite news|title=Tamil Province charges Colombo with genocide |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/south-asia/tamil-province-charges-colombo-with-genocide/article6879400.ece|newspaper=The Hindu |date=11 February 2015}}</ref> The [[2015 Northern Province Council resolution on genocide of Tamils|resolution]] asserts that "Tamils across Sri Lanka, particularly in the historical Tamil homeland of the NorthEast, have been subject to gross and systematic human rights violations, culminating in the mass atrocities committed in 2009. Sri Lanka's historic violations include over 60 years of state sponsored anti-Tamil pogroms, massacres, sexual violence, and acts of cultural and linguistic destruction perpetrated by the state. These atrocities have been perpetrated with the intent to destroy the Tamil people, and therefore constitute genocide."<ref>{{cite news|title=NPC passes resolution asking UN to investigate genocide of Tamils by Sri Lanka state |url=http://www.tamilguardian.com/article.asp?articleid=13726|newspaper=Tamil Guardian |date=10 February 2015}}</ref> |
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The Sri Lankan government denied the allegations of genocide and war crimes.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sri Lanka 'counting civilian war deaths'|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-15868038|newspaper=[[BBC News]]|date=24 November 2011}}</ref> |
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=====Easter bombings===== |
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{{See also|2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings}} |
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On 21 April 2019, [[Easter]] Sunday, three churches in [[Sri Lanka]] and three luxury hotels in the commercial capital, [[Colombo]], were targeted in a series of coordinated Islamic [[Terrorism|terrorist]] suicide bombings. Later that day, there were smaller explosions at a housing complex in [[Dematagoda]] and a guest house in [[Dehiwala]]. A total of 267 people were killed,<ref name="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/11/sri-lanka-election-observers-report-poll-day-violations-191116095400943.html">{{cite web|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/front_page/Easter-Sunday-attacks-SC-grants-Leave-to-proceed-12-FR-Petitions/238-175526|title=Easter Sunday attacks SC grants Leave to proceed 12 FR Petitions|publisher=Daily Mirror Online|date=3 October 2019|access-date=17 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="asiatimes20191209">{{cite web|url=https://www.asiatimes.com/2019/12/article/sri-lanka-intel-chief-sacked-over-easter-attacks/|title=Sri Lanka intel chief sacked over Easter attacks|publisher=Asia Times|date=9 December 2019|access-date=17 December 2019}}</ref> including at least 45 foreign nationals,<ref name="ndtv.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/us-official-injured-in-sri-lanka-suicide-attack-dies-in-hospital-2034800|title=US Official, Injured in Sri Lanka Suicide Attack, Dies in Hospital|website=NDTV.com}}</ref> three police officers, and eight bombers, and at least 500 were injured.{{efn|''See''<ref name="nytimes-21apr2019">{{Cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/21/world/asia/sri-lanka-bombings.html|title=Blasts Targeting Christians Kill Hundreds in Sri Lanka|last1= Bastians|first1= Dharisha |date=21 April 2019|work=The New York Times |access-date=21 April 2019|last2= Gettleman|first2= Jeffrey|last3=Schultz|first3=Kai|url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/blasts-at-two-sri-lanka-churches-during-easter-mass-news-agency-afp-2026233 |title= 156 Dead in Blasts at Two Sri Lanka Churches During Easter Mass: Report |date= 22 April 2019|website= NDTV |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/sri-lanka-easter-bombings-live-blasts-during-church-services-in-colombo-1.851633 |title=Sri Lanka Easter bombings live: Blasts during church services in Colombo|website=The National|access-date=22 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sri-lanka-blast-idUSKCN1RX038 |title=Bombs kill more than 200 in Sri Lankan churches, hotels on Easter Sunday|date=21 April 2019 |work=Reuters|access-date=22 April 2019|first1= Ranga |last1= Sirilal|first2=Shihar|last2= Aneez}}</ref><ref name= cnn-21apr2019>{{Cite news|url= https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/21/asia/sri-lanka-explosions/ |first1= Sugam|last1= Pokharel|first2=Euan |last2= McKirdy |title= Sri Lanka blasts: At least 138 dead and more than 400 injured in multiple church and hotel explosions |date= 21 April 2019|work= CNN |access-date= 21 April 2019}}</ref>|name=numInjured}} The church bombings were carried out during [[Easter]] [[Mass (liturgy)|services]] in [[Negombo]], [[Batticaloa]] and Colombo; the hotels that were bombed were the [[Shangri-La Hotel, Colombo|Shangri-La]], [[Cinnamon Grand Hotel|Cinnamon Grand]], [[The Kingsbury|Kingsbury]] and [[Tropical Inn]].{{efn|''See''<ref name="bbc-21apr2019">{{cite news |title=Sri Lanka attacks: More than 200 killed as churches and hotels targeted |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48001720 | work = [[BBC News]] |date=21 April 2019 |access-date=22 April 2019}}</ref><ref name="multiple blasts">{{cite web |title=Sri Lanka Easter bombings: Mass casualties in churches and hotels |url= https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/04/multiple-blasts-hit-sri-lanka-churches-hotels-easter-sunday-190421050357452.html | publisher=[[Al Jazeera]] |access-date= 22 April 2019 |date= 21 April 2019}}</ref><ref name="guardian-20apr2019">{{cite news |title= Sri Lanka blasts: hundreds injured in church and hotel explosions |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/21/sri-lanka-explosions-80-believed-injured-in-blasts-at-two-churches |newspaper= [[The Guardian]] |access-date=20 April 2019 |date= 21 April 2019|first1= Jason |last1= Burke|first2= Benjamin |last2= Parkin}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Giordano |first1=Chiara |title=Eighth explosion kills police officers in Sri Lanka as death toll from Easter Sunday bomb attacks rises to more than 200 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/sri-lanka-blast-news-latest-bombing-death-toll-attack-colombo-a8879796.html |access-date=15 December 2020 |work=The Independent |date=21 April 2019}}</ref>|name=hotels}} According to the [[State Intelligence Service (Sri Lanka)|State Intelligence Service]], a second wave of attacks was planned, but was stopped as a result of government raids.<ref name="DM319">{{cite web |title=Failure of NTJ's second spate of orchestrated attacks |url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/news-features/Failure-of-NTJ%E2%80%99s-second-spate-of-orchestrated-attacks/131-170414 |access-date=3 July 2019}}</ref> Numerous world leaders expressed condolences and condemnation.{{efn|World leaders giving condolences included those of Afghanistan,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-04/21/c_137996044.htm|title=Afghanistan condemns serial blasts in Sri Lanka|date=21 April 2019|work=[[Xinhua]]|access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> Australia,<ref>{{cite news|first=Perry|last=Duffin|title=Scott Morrison and Bill Shorten condemn Sri Lanka bombings|url=https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6082270/innocent-lives-have-been-stolen-australian-leaders-condemn-sri-lanka-bombings/|newspaper=[[The Canberra Times]]|date=21 April 2019|access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref> Bangladesh,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/country/news/pm-president-condemn-sri-lanka-attack-express-condolences-1732891|title=PM, President condemn Sri Lanka attack, express condolences |date= 21 April 2019|website=The Daily Star |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190421085640/https://www.thedailystar.net/country/news/pm-president-condemn-sri-lanka-attack-express-condolences-1732891 |archive-date=21 April 2019 |access-date= 21 April 2019}}</ref> Brazil,<ref>{{cite web | work = O antagonista |url= https://www.oantagonista.com/brasil/bolsonaro-condena-atentado-no-sri-lanka/|title=Bolsonaro condena atentado no Sri Lanka}}</ref> Brunei,<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.mfa.gov.bn/Lists/Press%20Room/news.aspx?id=751&source=http://www.mfa.gov.bn/site/home.aspx |title=Message of condolence to the Prime Minister of the Democratic Socialist of Sri Lanka on the recent bomb attacks |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Brunei)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Brunei]] |date=23 April 2019 |access-date=26 April 2019}}</ref> Bulgaria,<ref>{{cite web|url= http://focus-news.net/news/2019/04/21/2649330/premierat-boyko-borisov-izprati-saboleznovatelna-telegrama-do-ministar-predsedatelya-na-shri-lanka-ranil-vikremesinghe.html |title= Prime Minister Boyko Borisov expressed condolences to Sri Lanka Prime Minister| work = Focus |date=21 April 2019|access-date= 21 April 2019}}</ref> Cambodia,<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.mfaic.gov.kh/site/detail/29619 |title=Statement of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation on the horrible attacks on churches and hotels in Sri Lanka on 21 April 2019 |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation (Cambodia)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, Cambodia]] |date=22 April 2019 |access-date=26 April 2019}}</ref> Canada,<ref>{{cite web|url= https://globalnews.ca/news/5188243/global-affairs-canadians-sri-lanka/|title=Canadians in Sri Lanka warned more attacks possible after deadly bombings|publisher=Global News|date=21 April 2019|access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref> China,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-04/22/c_137996394.htm |title=Chinese president, premier send condolence messages to Sri Lanka over deadly attacks |website=[[Xinhua News Agency]] |date=22 April 2019 |access-date=22 April 2019}}</ref> Denmark,<ref>{{cite news | first=M.L. | last=Norup | url=https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/udland/udenrigsministeriet-forlydender-om-draebte-og-saarede-danskere-i-sri-lanka | title=Udenrigsministeriet: Forlydender om dræbte og sårede danskere i Sri Lanka |trans-title=Foreign Ministry: Information about Danish citizens killed and wounded in Sri Lanka |publisher=[[DR (broadcaster)|DR News]]|language=da|date=21 April 2019|access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref> Finland,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.talouselama.fi/uutiset/te/2bce9a8f-b9f5-4913-9c25-16b2e778950d?|title=Juha Sipilä tuomitsee Sri Lankassa pääsiäissunnuntaina tehdyt iskut|publisher=Talouselämä|date=21 April 2019|access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref> the Holy See,<ref name="VaticanNewsWatkins2019">{{cite news |last1=Watkins |first1=Devin |title=Pope Francis laments Easter Sunday attacks in Sri Lanka |url=https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2019-04/pope-francis-laments-sri-lanka-attacks-on-easter.html |access-date=21 April 2019 |work=Vatican News |date=21 April 2019}}</ref> Hungary,<ref>{{cite web |title= A külügyminisztérium elítéli a támadásokat |trans-title=The Ministry of Foreign Affairs Condemns the Attacks |url= https://magyarnemzet.hu/belfold/a-kulugyminiszterium-eliteli-a-tamadasokat-6807635/ |website= [[Magyar Nemzet]] |access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref> India,<ref name="ndtv">{{cite web |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/sri-lanka-blasts-pm-narendra-modi-says-no-place-for-such-barbarism-in-our-region-2026295 |title="No Place For Such Barbarism in Our Region": PM Modi on Sri Lanka Blasts |website= NDTV |access-date= 21 April 2019}}</ref> Indonesia,<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.antaranews.com/berita/838652/indonesia-kecam-keras-pengeboman-di-sri-lanka|title=Indonesia kecam keras pengeboman di Sri Lanka |website= Antara News |access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref> Iran,<ref>{{cite web |title= Sri Lanka's bloody day: Hundreds of casualties in attacks on churches, hotels |url=https://www.presstv.com/Detail/2019/04/21/593945/Sri-Lanka-blasts-massive-casualties|website= [[Press TV]] |access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref> Israel,<ref name=israelaid>{{cite web |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-offers-aid-to-sri-lanka-in-call-after-devastating-bombings/ |title=Israel offers aid to Sri Lanka in call after devastating bombings |newspaper=The Times of Israel|date= 21 April 2019}}</ref> Italy,<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/Sri-Lanka-Mattarella-condanna-gesto-vile-Conte-addolorato-da-deriva-odio-c9cb437a-4cb8-48ec-ab19-19055d6cabce.html |title=Sri Lanka, Mattarella: "Condanna vile gesto violenza". Conte: "Addolorato da nuova deriva d'odio" |website=RaiNews|language=it|access-date= 21 April 2019}}</ref> Japan,<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.mofa.go.jp/s_sa/sw/lk/page4e_001008.html |title=Message of condolences from Prime Minister Shinzo Abe to Hon. Ranil Wickremesinghe, Prime Minister of Sri Lanka following the terrorist attacks in the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan]] |date=22 April 2019 |access-date=22 April 2019}}</ref> Laos,<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.mofa.gov.la/index.php/activities/messages/3167-condolence-message-about-the-string-of-bombings-in-the-catholic-churches-and-hotels-in-sri-lanka-on-21-april-2019 |title=Condolence Message about the string of bombings in the Catholic Churches and Hotels in Sri Lanka on 21 April 2019 |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Laos)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Laos]] |date=23 April 2019 |access-date=26 April 2019}}</ref> Lebanon,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.almanar.com.lb/721536|title=Hezbollah Denounces Sri Lanka Blasts, Hopes Imminent Apparition of Imam Mahdi (P) to Restore World's Security & Peace – Al-Manar TV Lebanon|website=english.almanar.com.lb}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://colombogazette.com/2019/04/22/hezbollah-condemns-savage-attack-in-sri-lanka/|title=Hezbollah condemns "savage" attack in Sri Lanka|last=admin|date=22 April 2019}}</ref> Malaysia,<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.kln.gov.my/web/guest/-/press-release-explosions-in-colombo-sri-lanka |title=Explosions in Colombo, Sri Lanka |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Malaysia]] |date=21 April 2019 |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> Morocco,<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2019/04/271242/king-mohammed-vi-sends-condolences-to-sri-lankan-president/ |title=King Mohammed VI Sends Condolences to Sri Lankan President|date=22 April 2019 |access-date= 22 April 2019|via= Morocco World News}}</ref> New Zealand,<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=12224177 |title=Sri Lanka explosions: Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern labels attacks 'devastating' and sends NZ's condolences to grieving country|date=21 April 2019 |access-date= 21 April 2019|via= NZ Herald}}</ref> Pakistan,<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.khaleejtimes.com/international/pakistan/pakistan-pm-imran-khan-reacts-to-sri-lanka-church-blasts|title=Prime Minister Imran Khan expresses his condolences to attacks in Sri Lanka |date=21 April 2019 |website= Khaleej times |access-date= 21 April 2019}}</ref> Palestine,<ref>{{cite web|url= http://english.wafa.ps/page.aspx?id=14LSdda110143519431a14LSdd|title=President Abbas condemns Sri Lanka terror attacks|website= [[Wafa]]|access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://hamas.ps/en/post/2057/press-release-on-terror-attacks-in-sri-lanka|title=Press release on terror attacks in Sri Lanka|website=hamas.ps|access-date=25 April 2019}}</ref> the Philippines,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Parrocha |first1=Azer |title=Palace sympathizes with families of Sri Lanka blast victims |url= https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1067726 |website=Philippine News Agency |publisher=Philippine Government |access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref> Poland,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiadomosci.wp.pl/sri-lanka-msz-wydalo-oswiadczenie-ws-zamachow-6372716892465281a|title=Sri Lanka. MSZ wydało oświadczenie ws. zamachów|date=21 April 2019|website=[[Wirtualna Polska]]|language=pl|access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref> Portugal,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/antonio-costa-expressa-grande-pesar-pela-morte-de-portugues-no-sri-lanka|title=António Costa expressa "grande pesar" pela morte de português no Sri Lanka|website=[[SAPO (company)|SAPO]]|access-date= 23 April 2019}}</ref> Romania,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://adevarul.ro/news/politica/reactia-presedintelui-iohannis-exploziile-sri-lanka-1_5cbc4705445219c57ecb06a5/index.html |title=Reacția președintelui Iohannis după exploziile din Sri Lanka |work=Adevărul |author=Ion Gaidau |date=21 April 2019 |language=ro}}</ref> Russia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/60337|title=Condolences to Sri Lanka President Maithripala Sirisena |publisher=Russian Presidential Executive Office |date=21 April 2019}}</ref> Saudi Arabia,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.spa.gov.sa/viewstory.php?lang=en&newsid=1915554|title=Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Sends Cable of Condolence to Sri Lanka's President on Victims of Terrorist Attacks|access-date=23 April 2019}}</ref> Serbia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rtv.rs/sr_ci/svet/krvavi-uskrs-u-srilanci-189-mrtvih-560-povredjeno-u-nekoliko-eksplozija_1011022.html|title=Крвави Ускрс у Шри Ланци: Седам ухапшених, 207 погинулих, 450 рањених|language=sr|trans-title=Bloody Easter in Sri Lanka: Seven arrested, 207 dead, 450 wounded|access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref> Singapore,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/sri-lanka-blasts-pm-lee-condemns-terror-attacks-casualties-11465134|title=Sri Lanka blasts: PM Lee condemns 'heinous attacks', MFA says no Singaporean casualties|website= CNA |access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref> Slovakia,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.teraz.sk/spravy/prezident-sr-vyjadril-sustrast-rodina/391157-clanok.html|title=Prezident Kiska vyjadril sústrasť rodinám obetí výbuchov na Srí Lanke |date=21 April 2019|website=Teraz |language=sk|access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref> South Korea,<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.mofa.go.kr/eng/brd/m_5676/view.do?seq=320478&srchFr=&srchTo=&srchWord=&srchTp=&multi_itm_seq=0&itm_seq_1=0&itm_seq_2=0&company_cd=&company_nm=&page=1&titleNm= |title=MOFA Spokesperson's Statement on Bombing Attacks in Sri Lanka |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (South Korea)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs, South Korea]] |date=22 April 2019 |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> Thailand,<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.mfa.go.th/main/en/news3/6886/102054-Messages-of-Condolence-from-the-Prime-Minister-of.html |title=Press Release : Messages of Condolence from the Prime Minister of Thailand and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Thailand on the Bombings in Sri Lanka on 21 April 2019 |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Thailand)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Thailand]] |date=22 April 2019 |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> the United Arab Emirates,<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.khaleejtimes.com/news/government/uae-denounces-terrorist-attacks-in-sri-lanka| title=UAE denounces terrorist attacks in Sri Lanka|date=21 April 2019|website=Khaleej Times|access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref> the United Kingdom,<ref>{{Cite tweet |user=theresa_may |author=Theresa May |number=1119881548373868544|date = 21 April 2019 |title=The acts of violence against churches and hotels in Sri Lanka are truly appalling, and my deepest sympathies go out to all of those affected at this tragic time. We must stand together to make sure that no one should ever have to practise their faith in fear.}}</ref> the United States,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/reaction-to-sri-lanka-attacks-/4884863.html| title=World Leaders React to Sri Lanka Explosions|date=21 April 2019|website=voanews.com|access-date=22 April 2019}}</ref> Venezuela,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/jaarreaza/status/1120076222518706176|title=El gobierno del presidente Nicolás Maduro expresa su profunda condena a los ataques terroristas ocurridos en la República Democrática Socialista de Sri Lanka. Venezuela repudia el terrorismo en cualquiera de sus formas y expresa sus más sentidas condolencias/gGb0bmoDn7|first=Jorge Arreaza|last=M|date=21 April 2019|access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/jguaido/status/1120052877282742272|title=Desde Venezuela lamentamos los despreciables hechos terroristas ocurridos en Sri Lanka que dejaron innumerables víctimas inocentes. Expresamos nuestras más sentidas palabras de condolencia y reivindicamos el derecho de todo ser humano a profesar libremente su religión.|first=Juan|last=Guaidó|date=21 April 2019|access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> and Vietnam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sggpnews.org.vn/national/vietnamese-leaders-send-condolences-after-bomb-attacks-in-sri-lanka-81467.html |title=Vietnamese leaders send condolences after bomb attacks in Sri Lanka |author1=Thanh Nam |author2=Huyen Huong |publisher=[[Sài Gòn Giải Phóng]] |date=22 April 2019 |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref>|name=|group=}} [[President of the European Parliament]] [[Antonio Tajani]] referred to the bombings as an act of genocide.<ref name="Tajani Tweet">{{cite web |last1=Tajani |first1=Antonio |title=Even on Easter Sunday, there are those who sow hatred and reap death. The attacks in #SriLanka churches testify to a real genocide perpetrated against Christians. Let us pray for the innocent victims and work towards religious freedom around the world. |url=https://twitter.com/EP_President/status/1119871493637324800 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429230640/https://twitter.com/EP_President/status/1119871493637324800 |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 April 2019 |website=Twitter |access-date=29 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Factbox: Reaction to Sri Lanka attacks |url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-sri-lanka-blasts-reaction-factbox/factbox-reaction-to-sri-lanka-attacks-idUKKCN1RX09G?feedType=RSS&feedName=worldNews |website=REUTERS}}</ref> |
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====Myanmar==== |
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[[File:Rohingya refugees entering Bangladesh after being driven out of Myanmar, 2017.JPG|thumb|325px|Rohingya refugees entering Bangladesh after being driven out of [[Myanmar]], 2017]] |
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{{Main|Rohingya genocide}} |
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{{See|Freedom of religion in Myanmar|Human rights in Myanmar|Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar|Rohingya conflict}} |
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[[Myanmar]]'s government has been accused of crimes against the Muslim [[Rohingya people|Rohingya]] minority that are alleged to amount to genocide. It has been alleged that Rohingya are the primary targets of [[hate crime]]s and discrimination which amounts to genocide and the genocide is being fueled against them by extremist nationalist Buddhist monks and [[Thein Sein]]'s government. Muslim groups have claimed that they were subjected to genocide, torture, arbitrary detention, and cruel, [[inhuman or degrading treatment|inhuman, and degrading treatment]].<ref>{{cite web|title = Burma – United to End Genocide |url = http://endgenocide.org/conflict-areas/burma/ |access-date=7 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Muslim groups sue Myanmar president for Rohingya 'genocide' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/06/muslim-groups-sue-myanmar-president-for-rohingya-genocide |newspaper=the Guardian |access-date=7 October 2015 |first=Agence France-Presse in New |last=York|date=6 October 2015 }}</ref> |
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On 25 August 2017, the Myanmar military forces and local [[Buddhism and violence|Buddhist extremists]] started attacking the [[Rohingya people]] and committing atrocities against them in the country's north-west [[Rakhine State]]. The atrocities included attacks on Rohingya people and locations, looting and burning down Rohingya villages, mass killing of Rohingya civilians, [[gang rape]]s, and other sexual violence. |
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Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) estimated in December 2017 that during the persecution, the military and the local Buddhists killed at least 10,000 Rohingya people.<ref name=ABC-10000>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-12-14/rohingya-death-toll-in-the-thousands-says-msf/9260552 |title=Rohingya death toll likely above 10,000, MSF says amid exodus|first=James |last=Bennett |date=14 Dec 2017 |work=ABC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/sites/usa/files/summary_of_findings_-_msf_mortality_surveys_-_coxs_bazar.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=1 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111164514/https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/sites/usa/files/summary_of_findings_-_msf_mortality_surveys_-_coxs_bazar.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2018 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> At least 392 Rohingya villages in Rakhine state were reported as burned down and destroyed,<ref name="OHCHR">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23575&LangID=E|title=Myanmar: UN Fact-Finding Mission releases its full account of massive violations by military in Rakhine, Kachin and Shan States|website=Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights|access-date=30 September 2018}}</ref> as well as the looting of many Rohingya houses,<ref name=Reuters-Investigates-Massacre>{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/myanmar-rakhine-events/ |title=Massacre in Myanmar: One grave for 10 Rohingya men |author=Wa Lone, Kyaw Soe Oo |date=8 February 2018 |work=[[Reuters]] }}</ref> and widespread gang rapes and other forms of sexual violence against the Rohingya Muslim women and girls.<ref name=TheIndependent-Rape>{{cite news |title=Rohingya crisis: Burmese military guilty of widespread rape of fleeing women and girls, Human Rights Watch says |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/rohingya-crisis-latest-today-burmese-military-rape-accusation-human-rights-watch-muslim-refugees-a8057846.html |newspaper=The Independent |date=16 November 2017 |first=Michelle |last=Nichols }}</ref><ref name=DailyStar-Rape>{{cite news |title=Rohingya women gang-raped by Myanmar army |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/rohingya-girls-gang-raped-myanmar-army-1490278 |newspaper=The Daily Star |date=13 November 2017 }}</ref><ref name=NYT-Rape>{{cite news |title=Rohingya Were Raped Systematically by Myanmar's Military |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/16/world/asia/myanmar-rohingya-rapes.html?_r=0 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=16 November 2017 |first=Rick|last=Gladstone}}</ref> The military drive also displaced a large number of Rohingya people and made them refugees. According to the United Nations reports, {{as of|2018|September|lc=y}}, over 700,000 Rohingya people had fled or had been driven out of Rakhine state who then took shelter in the neighboring [[Bangladesh]] as refugees. In December 2017, two Reuters journalists who had been covering the [[Inn Din massacre]] event were arrested and imprisoned. |
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The 2017 persecution against the Rohingya Muslims and non-Muslims has been termed as [[ethnic cleansing]] and [[genocide]] by various [[United Nations]] agencies, [[International Criminal Court]] officials, human rights groups, and governments.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/myanmar-mass-graves-latest-rohingya-slaughter-genocide-ap/ |publisher=CBS News |title=AP finds mass graves, latest evidence of Rohingya genocide in Myanmar |access-date=5 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-myanmar-rohingyas-20180313-story.html |work=Los Angeles Times |title=U.N. genocide advisor: Myanmar waged 'scorched-earth campaign' against the Rohingya |access-date=5 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/03/12/asia/myanmar-rohingya-un-violence-genocide-intl/index.html|publisher=CNN |title=UN official convinced of Myanmar Rohingya 'genocide' |access-date=5 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amnestyusa.org/press-releases/un-security-council-end-disgraceful-inaction-on-myanmars-rohingya-crisis/|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=10 April 2018|title=UN Security Council: End disgraceful inaction on Myanmar's Rohingya crisis}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2017/11/22/politics/tillerson-myanmar-ethnic-cleansing/index.html |publisher=CNN |title=Tillerson: Myanmar clearly 'ethnic cleansing' the Rohingya |access-date=5 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/10/rohingya-crisis-icc-prosecutor-seeks-power-to-investigate-crimes-against-humanity |publisher=Guardian |title='Hallmarks of genocide': ICC prosecutor seeks justice for Rohingya |access-date=5 October 2019}}</ref><ref name="Burma-Mass-Destruction">{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/10/17/burma-new-satellite-images-confirm-mass-destruction|title=Burma: New Satellite Images Confirm Mass Destruction|date=17 October 2017|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref> British prime minister [[Theresa May]] and [[United States Secretary of State]] [[Rex Tillerson]] called it "ethnic cleansing" while the [[President of France|French President]] [[Emmanuel Macron]] described the situation as "genocide".<ref name=Independent-Downing-Street>{{cite news |title=Downing Street says Burma's treatment of Rohingya Muslims looks like 'ethnic cleansing' |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/downing-street-burma-rohingya-muslims-theresa-may-ethnic-cleansing-military-forces-a8052031.html |newspaper=The Independent |date=13 November 2017|author=Joe Watts, Caroline Mortimer }}</ref><ref name=USSD-Tillerson>{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2017/11/275848.htm |title=Efforts To Address Burma's Rakhine State Crisis |first=Rex W. |last=Tillerson |date=22 November 2017 |publisher=U.S. State Department |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180220033359/https://www.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2017/11/275848.htm |archive-date=20 February 2018 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name=SBSNews-Macron>{{cite news |title=French President labels attacks on Rohingya minority as 'genocide' |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/french-president-labels-attacks-on-rohingya-minority-as-genocide |newspaper=SBS News |date=20 September 2017 }}</ref> The United Nations described the persecution as "a textbook example of ethnic cleansing". In late September that year, a seven-member panel of the [[Permanent Peoples' Tribunal]] found the Myanmar military and the Myanmar authority guilty of the crime of genocide against the Rohingya and the [[Kachin people|Kachin]] [[minority group]]s.<ref name=PPT-Straits-Times>{{cite news |title=Permanent Peoples Tribunal finds Myanmar guilty of genocide |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2017/09/282864/permanent-peoples-tribunal-finds-myanmar-guilty-genocide |newspaper=New Straits Times |date=22 September 2017 |author=Bernama }}</ref><ref name=PPT-Daily-Star>{{cite news |title=Myanmar found guilty of genocide |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/mayanmar-rohingya-refugee-crisis-myanmar-found-guilty-genocide-1466263 |newspaper=The Daily Star |date=23 September 2017 }}</ref> The Myanmar leader and [[State Counsellor of Myanmar|State Counsellor]] [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] was again criticized for her silence over the issue and for supporting the military actions.<ref name="rohingya_have_fled_2017_09_08_ny_times">Ramzy, Austin, [https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/08/world/asia/myanmar-rohingya-refugees-270000.html?mcubz=1&mcubz=1 "270,000 Rohingya Have Fled Myanmar, U.N. Says"], 8 September 2017, [[New York Times]] retrieved 9 September 2017</ref> Subsequently, in November 2017, the governments of [[Bangladesh]] and [[Myanmar]] signed a deal to facilitate the return of Rohingya refugees to their native [[Rakhine state]] within two months, drawing a mixed response from international onlookers.<ref name=BBC2017-11-23a>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-42094060|title=Myanmar Rohingya crisis: Deal to allow return of Muslim refugees|date=23 November 2017|access-date=26 November 2017|publisher=BBC}}</ref> |
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In August 2018, the office of the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]], reporting the findings of their investigation into the August–September 2017 events, declared that the Myanmar military—the [[Tatmadaw]], and several of its commanders (including Commander-in-chief Senior General [[Min Aung Hlaing]])—should face charges in the [[International Criminal Court]] for "[[crimes against humanity]]", including acts of "ethnic cleansing" and "genocide," particularly for the August–September 2017 attacks on the Rohingya.<ref name="un_report_A_HRC_39_64_ohchcr_2018_08_27">[https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/FFM-Myanmar/A_HRC_39_64.pdf Human rights situations that require the Council’s attention: ''Report of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar,''] (Advance Unedited Version: English) 24 August 2018, [[United Nations]], [[Human Rights Council]], 39th session, 10–28 September 2018, Agenda item 4, retrieved 28 August 2018</ref><ref name="un_calls_2018_08_27_reuters">[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-un/myanmar-generals-had-genocidal-intent-against-rohingya-must-face-justice-u-n-idUSKCN1LC0KN "U.N. calls for Myanmar generals to be tried for genocide, blames Facebook for incitement,"] 27 August 2018, [[Reuters News Service]], retrieved 28 August 2018</ref><ref name="military_leaders_must_face_2018_08_27_bbc">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-45318982 "Myanmar Rohingya: UN says military leaders must face genocide charges,"] 27 August 2018, ''[[BBC News]]'', retrieved 28 August 2018</ref><ref name="investigators_call_2018_08_27_cbs_news">[https://www.cbsnews.com/news/rohingya-crisis-myanmar-genocide-military-commanders-un-human-rights-mission/ "Investigators call for genocide prosecutions over slaughter of Rohingyas,"] 27 August 2018, ''[[CBS News]]'', retrieved 28 August 2018</ref><ref name="myanmar_generals_2018_08_27_reuters_us_news">[https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2018-08-27/myanmar-generals-had-genocidal-intent-against-rohingya-must-face-justice-un "Myanmar Generals Had 'Genocidal Intent' Against Rohingya, Must Face Justice: U.N.,"] 27 August 2018, ''[[U.S. News]]'', retrieved 28 August 2018</ref><ref name="year_after_rohingya_massacres_2018_08_27_ny_times">[https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/25/world/asia/rohingya-myanmar-ethnic-cleansing-anniversary.html "Year After Rohingya Massacres, Top Generals Unrepentant and Unpunished,"] 27 August 2018, ''[[New York Times]]'', retrieved 28 August 2018</ref> |
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==== South Sudan ==== |
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{{Main|Ethnic violence in South Sudan}} |
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During the [[South Sudanese Civil War]] there were ethnic undertones to the conflict between the [[South Sudan People's Defence Forces]] and the [[Sudan People's Liberation Movement-in-Opposition]], which has been accused of being dominated by the [[Dinka]] ethnic group. A Dinka lobbying group known as the "Jieng Council of Elders" was often accused of being behind hardline SPLM policies.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://radiotamazuj.org/en/article/dinka-council-elders-welcomes-kiir’s-decision-firing-ministers-allied-machar|title=Dinka council of elders welcomes Kiir's decision firing ministers allied to Machar|date=4 August 2016|access-date=9 March 2017|work=Radio Tamazuj}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article59719|title=Jieng Council of Elders caused "coup" in SPLM-IO: official|date=24 July 2015|access-date=9 March 2017|work=Sudan Tribune}}</ref> While the army used to attract men who were members of different tribes, during the war, a large number of the SPLA's soldiers were from the [[Dinka people|Dinka]] stronghold of [[Bahr el Ghazal (region of South Sudan)|Bahr el Ghazal]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/20/opinion/south-sudan-cannot-be-allowed-to-collapse.html?_r=1|title=South Sudan must not be allowed to collapse|date=20 January 2017|newspaper=New York Times}}</ref> and within the country the army was often referred to as "the Dinka army".<ref name=bbcnews0317/> Much of the worst atrocities committed are blamed on a group known as "Dot Ke Beny" (Rescue the President) or "[[Mathiang Anyoor]]" (Brown caterpillar), while the SPLA claim that it is just another battalion.<ref name=africanarguments>{{cite web|url=http://africanarguments.org/2016/07/11/whos-behind-south-sudans-return-to-fighting/|title=Who's behind South Sudan's return to fighting?|date=11 July 2016|access-date=26 January 2017|work=African arguments}}</ref><ref name=bbcnews0317>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-39209280|title=South Sudan conflict: 'Soldiers will kill you for no reason in Yei'|first=Alastair|last=Leithead|date=9 March 2017|access-date=9 March 2017|work=BBC}}</ref> Immediately after the alleged coup in 2013, Dinka troops, and particularly Mathiang Anyoor,<ref name="africanarguments"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/10/28/report-mass-graves-rape-cannibalism-in-south-sudan.html|title=Mass Graves, Rape Cannibalism in South Sudan|date=28 October 2015|access-date=26 January 2017|work=Al Jazeera}}</ref> were accused of carrying out pogroms, assisted by guides, in house to house searches of Nuer suburbs,<ref name="hrw.org">{{Citation | title = South Sudan: ethnic targeting, widespread killings | url = https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/01/16/south-sudan-ethnic-targeting-widespread-killings | publisher = Human Rights Watch| date = 16 January 2014 }}</ref> while similar door to door searches of Nuers were reported in government held Malakal.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://news.yahoo.com/sudan-troops-39-door-door-39-seized-town-215351156.html |title=Sudan troops go 'door to door' in seized town |publisher=Yahoo |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140126065608/http://news.yahoo.com/sudan-troops-39-door-door-39-seized-town-215351156.html |archive-date=26 January 2014 }}</ref> About 240 Nuer men were killed at a police station in Juba's Gudele neighborhood.<ref name="theguardian.com">{{Citation | title = South Sudan, the state that fell apart in a week | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/23/south-sudan-state-that-fell-apart-in-a-week | date = 23 December 2013 | newspaper = The Guardian | place = [[United Kingdom|UK]]}}</ref><ref name="massethnic">{{cite web| first = James | last = Copnall|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25502457 |title=South Sudan sees 'mass ethnic killings' | publisher = BBC|date= 24 December 2013 |access-date= 24 December 2013}}</ref> During the [[#Renewed conflict and rebel infighting|fighting in 2016-17]] in the Upper Nile region between the SPLA and the SPLA-IO allied Upper Nile faction of Uliny, Shilluk in [[Wau Shilluk]] were forced from their homes and Yasmin Sooka, chairwoman of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, claimed that the government was engaging in "social engineering" after it transported 2,000 mostly Dinka people to the abandoned areas.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-03-15/un-warns-of-south-sudan-27social-engineering27/8354958|title=South Sudan: UN warns of 'social engineering' amid looming threat of genocide|publisher=ABC news|access-date=17 March 2017|date=14 March 2017}}</ref> The king of the [[Shilluk Kingdom]], Kwongo Dak Padiet, claimed his people were at risk of physical and cultural extinction.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.startribune.com/south-sudan-experiencing-ethnic-cleansing-un-report-says/415571874/|title=South Sudan experiencing ethnic cleansing, UN report says|newspaper=Star Tribune|access-date=9 March 2017|date=7 March 2017}}</ref> In the Equatoria region, Dinka soldiers were accused of targeting civilians on ethnic lines against the dozens of ethnic groups among the Equatorians, with much of the atrocities being blamed on [[Mathiang Anyoor]].<ref name=bbcnews0317/> [[Adama Dieng]], the U.N.'s Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, warned of [[genocide]] after visiting areas of fighting in [[Yei River State|Yei]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-southsudan-uganda-refugees-idUSKBN1441QU|title=Hatred spills beyond South Sudan along with refugees|date=15 December 2016|work=Reuters}}</ref> Khalid Boutros of the Cobra faction as well as officials of the Murle led [[Boma State]] accuse the SPLA of aiding attacks by Dinka from Jonglei state against Boma state,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://radiotamazuj.org/en/article/ssdm-cobra-faction-dissolved-merged-cirillos-rebels|title=SSDM-Cobra Faction dissolved, merged with Cirillo's rebels|date=9 March 2017|access-date=9 March 2017|work=Radio Tamazuj}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://radiotamazuj.org/en/article/gunmen-attack-boma-villages-displaced-residents-official|title=Gunmen attack on Boma villages displaced residents: Official|date=8 March 2017|access-date=12 March 2017|work=Radio Tamazuj}}</ref> and soldiers from Jonglei captured Kotchar in Boma in 2017.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://radiotamazuj.org/en/article/boma-deputy-governor-says-gunmen-jonglei-captured-kotchar|title=Boma deputy governor says gunmen from Jonglei captured Kotchar|date=8 March 2017|access-date=12 March 2017|work=Radio Tamazuj}}</ref> In 2010, [[Dennis C. Blair|Dennis Blair]], the United States [[Director of National Intelligence]], issued a warning that "over the next five years,...a new mass killing or genocide is most likely to occur in southern Sudan."<ref name=Abramowitz>{{cite news | last = Abramowitz | first = Michael | author2 = Lawrence Woocher | title = How Genocide Became a National Security Threat | work = Foreign Policy | date = 26 February 2010 | url = https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/02/26/how_genocide_became_a_national_security_threat | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140723141059/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/02/26/how_genocide_became_a_national_security_threat | archive-date = 23 July 2014 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref name=aljazeera>{{cite news|title=Sudan: Transcending tribe |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/photo_galleries/africa/201111010324526960.html |work=[[Al Jazeera English]] |access-date=30 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110317113359/http://english.aljazeera.net//photo_galleries/africa/201111010324526960.html |archive-date=17 March 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In April 2017, [[Priti Patel]], the [[Secretary of State for International Development|Secretary]] of the United Kingdom's [[Department for International Development]], declared the violence in South Sudan as genocide.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/south-sudan-africa-genocide-uk-priti-patel-un-violence-a7681361.html|title=UK goes beyond UN to say South Sudan violence 'is now genocide'|date=12 April 2017|access-date=15 April 2017|work=The Independent|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170415220306/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/south-sudan-africa-genocide-uk-priti-patel-un-violence-a7681361.html|archive-date=15 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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====ISIL==== |
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{{Main|Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant}} |
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{{Further|Human rights in ISIL-controlled territory|Persecution of Christians by ISIL|Genocide of Shias by ISIL|Genocide of Yazidis by ISIL}} |
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ISIL compels people who live in the areas that it controls to live according to its interpretation of [[Sharia|sharia law]].<ref name="McCoyTop">{{cite news |last=McCoy |first=Terrence |date=13 June 2013 |title=ISIL, beheadings and the success of horrifying violence |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/06/13/isis-beheadings-and-the-success-of-horrifying-violence/ |work=The Washington Post |access-date=23 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009194016/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/06/13/Isis-beheadings-and-the-success-of-horrifying-violence/ |archive-date=9 October 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Bulos">{{cite news |last=Bulos |first=Nabih |date=20 June 2014 |title=Islamic State of Iraq and Syria aims to recruit Westerners with video |url=https://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-isis-video-20140620-story.html |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=17 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813111642/http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-isis-video-20140620-story.html |archive-date=13 August 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> There have been many reports of the group's use of [[death threat]]s, torture and mutilation in order to compel people to convert to Islam,<ref name="McCoyTop" /><ref name="Bulos" /> and reports of clerics being killed for refusing to pledge allegiance to the so-called "Islamic State".<ref name=Zarocostas-clerics /> ISIL directs violence against [[Shia Islam|Shia]] Muslims, [[Alawites]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]], [[Chaldean Christians|Chaldean]], [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac]] and [[Armenians|Armenian]] Christians, [[Yazidi]]s, [[Druze]], [[Shabaks]] and [[Mandeans]] in particular.<ref name="Christian">{{cite news |last1=Abi-Habib |first1=Maria |title=Iraq's Christian Minority Feels Militant Threat |url=https://online.wsj.com/articles/iraqs-christian-minority-feels-militant-threat-1403826576 |access-date=6 July 2014 |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=26 June 2014 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702061230/http://online.wsj.com/articles/iraqs-christian-minority-feels-militant-threat-1403826576 |archive-date=2 July 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Among the known killings of religious and minority group civilians carried out by ISIL are those in the villages and towns of [[Quiniyeh]] (70–90 Yazidis killed), [[Hardan (Iraq)|Hardan]] (60 Yazidis killed), [[Sinjar massacre|Sinjar]] (500–2,000 Yazidis killed), Ramadi Jabal (60–70 Yazidis killed), Dhola (50 Yazidis killed), Khana Sor (100 Yazidis killed), Hardan area (250–300 Yazidis killed), al-Shimal (dozens of Yazidis killed), Khocho (400 Yazidis killed and 1,000 abducted), Jadala (14 Yazidis killed)<ref name="OHRCHR/UNAMI">{{cite report |url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/IQ/UNAMI_OHCHR_POC_Report_FINAL_6July_10September2014.pdf |publisher=United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights |title=Report on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict in Iraq: 6 July – 10 September 2014 |access-date=13 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141002132143/http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/IQ/UNAMI_OHCHR_POC_Report_FINAL_6July_10September2014.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> and Beshir (700 Shia Turkmen killed),<ref name="cnsnews.com">{{cite news |url=http://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/lauretta-brown/un-isis-massacred-700-turkmen-including-women-children-elderly |title=UN: ISIS Massacred 700 Turkmen – Including Women, Children, Elderly |first=Lauretta |last=Brown |work=CNS News |date=26 August 2014 |access-date=13 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611060614/https://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/lauretta-brown/un-isis-massacred-700-turkmen-including-women-children-elderly |archive-date=11 June 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> and others committed near Mosul (670 Shia inmates of the Badush prison killed),<ref name="cnsnews.com" /> and in [[Tal Afar]] prison, Iraq (200 Yazidis killed for refusing conversion).<ref name="OHRCHR/UNAMI" /> The UN estimated that 5,000 Yazidis were killed by ISIL during the takeover of parts of northern Iraq in August 2014.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}} In late May 2014, 150 Kurdish boys from [[Kobani]] aged 14–16 were abducted and subjected to torture and abuse, according to Human Rights Watch.<ref name=AP-Kurds>{{cite news |last1=Lucas |first1=Ryan |title=ISIS Tortured Kurdish Children Captured in Kobani: Group |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/11/04/isis-kobani-children-torture_n_6099500.html |access-date=4 November 2014 |agency=Associated Press |work=HuffPost |date=4 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105035214/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/11/04/isis-kobani-children-torture_n_6099500.html |archive-date=5 November 2014}}</ref> In the Syrian towns of Ghraneij, Abu Haman and Kashkiyeh 700 members of the Sunni [[Al-Shaitat]] tribe were killed for attempting an uprising against ISIL control.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/08/islamic-state-group-executes-700-syria-2014816123945662121.html |title=Islamic State group 'executes 700' in Syria |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=17 August 2014 |access-date=20 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015061846/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/08/islamic-state-group-executes-700-syria-2014816123945662121.html |archive-date=15 October 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Liz |last=Sly |title=Syria tribal revolt against Islamic State ignored, fueling resentment |date=20 October 2014 |work=The Washington Post |access-date=7 November 2014 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/syria-tribal-revolt-against-islamic-state-ignored-fueling-resentment/2014/10/20/25401beb-8de8-49f2-8e64-c1cfbee45232_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128074311/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/syria-tribal-revolt-against-islamic-state-ignored-fueling-resentment/2014/10/20/25401beb-8de8-49f2-8e64-c1cfbee45232_story.html |archive-date=28 January 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> The UN reported that in June 2014 ISIL had killed a number of Sunni Islamic clerics who refused to pledge allegiance to it.<ref name=Zarocostas-clerics>{{cite web |last1=Zarocostas |first1=John |title=U.N.: Islamic State executed imam of mosque where Baghdadi preached |url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2014/07/08/232563/un-islamic-state-executed-imam.html |website=McClatchyDC |access-date=10 October 2014 |date=8 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017115108/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2014/07/08/232563/un-islamic-state-executed-imam.html |archive-date=17 October 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> By 2014, a U.N. Humans Rights commission counted that 9,347<ref>{{cite web|last1=OBEIDALLAH|first1=DEAN|title=ISIS's Gruesome Muslim Death Toll|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/isiss-gruesome-muslim-death-toll|website=Daily Beast|access-date=2017-06-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607183716/http://www.thedailybeast.com/isiss-gruesome-muslim-death-toll|archive-date=2017-06-07|url-status=live}}</ref> civilians had been murdered by ISIL in Iraq, then however; by 2016 a second report by the United Nations estimated 18,802<ref>{{cite web|last1=JAMIESON|first1=ALASTAIR|title=ISIS Death Toll: 18,800 Killed in Iraq in 2 Years, U.N. Says|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-terror/isis-death-toll-18-800-killed-iraq-2-years-u-n499426|website=NBC NEWS|access-date=2017-06-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170604110533/http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-terror/isis-death-toll-18-800-killed-iraq-2-years-u-n499426|archive-date=2017-06-04|url-status=live}}</ref> deaths. |
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The [[Sinjar massacre]] in 2014 resulted in the killings of between 2,000<ref name="CNN7Aug">{{cite news |last=Levs |first=Josh |date=7 August 2014 |title=Will anyone stop ISIS? |url=http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/07/world/meast/stopping-isis |publisher=CNN |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140807191105/http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/07/world/meast/stopping-isis |archive-date=7 August 2014 |access-date=8 March 2015 }}</ref><ref name=NY6-8-14>George Packer, [https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/friend-flees-horror-isis "A Friend Flees the Horror of ISIS"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171013075635/https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/friend-flees-horror-isis |date=2017-10-13 }} ''[[The New Yorker]]'', 6 August 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2015</ref> and 5,000<ref name="5,000 Kurdish Yazidis executed by ISIL">{{cite web |last=Spencer |first=Richard |title=Isil carried out massacres and mass sexual enslavement of Yazidis, UN confirms |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11160906/Isil-carried-out-massacres-and-mass-sexual-enslavement-of-Yazidis-UN-confirms.html |work=[[Daily Telegraph]] |date=14 October 2014 |access-date=27 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212102709/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11160906/Isil-carried-out-massacres-and-mass-sexual-enslavement-of-Yazidis-UN-confirms.html |archive-date=12 February 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> civilians. |
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====Yemen==== |
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{{Main|Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)}} |
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{{See|Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen|Famine in Yemen (2016–present)|Human rights violations during the Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)}} |
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The [[Saudi Arabia]]n- and [[United Arab Emirates]]-led coalition which is fighting in Yemen has been accused of carrying out a "genocide".<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi-led coalition in Yemen accused of 'genocide' after airstrike on funeral hall kills 140 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/yemen-air-strike-bomb-kills-140-saudi-arabia-usa-white-house-a7352386.html |work=[[The Independent]] |date=9 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Calls for accountability as Yemen suffers genocide by starvation |url=https://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/opinion/2018-10-09-calls-for-accountability-as-yemen-suffers-genocide-by-starvation/ |publisher=Business Live |date=9 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Bachman |first1=Jeff |title=Genocide in Yemen? |url=https://sites.tufts.edu/reinventingpeace/2018/12/13/genocide-in-yemen/ |website=www.sites.tufts.edu|date=13 December 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi aggression in Yemen: Our exports support Arab genocide |url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/breakingnews/views/ourview/saudi-aggression-in-yemen-our-exports-support-arab-genocide-888892.html |work=[[Irish Examiner]] |date=30 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=When will America stop participating in Yemen's genocidal war? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/nov/15/america-stop-participating-yemen-war |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=15 November 2018}}</ref><ref name="yemen"/> U.S. Congresswoman [[Tulsi Gabbard]] said: "The United States’ support for Saudi Arabia's genocidal war in Yemen, with no authorization from Congress, has resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of Yemeni civilians."<ref name="yemen">{{cite web |last1=Gabbard |first1=Tulsi |title=Video: Rep. Tulsi Gabbard Votes to End U.S. Support for Saudi Arabia's Genocidal War in Yemen |url=https://gabbard.house.gov/news/press-releases/video-rep-tulsi-gabbard-votes-end-us-support-saudi-arabia-s-genocidal-war-yemen |website=www.gabbard.house.gov|date=14 February 2019 }}</ref> |
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==International prosecution== |
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===Ad hoc tribunals=== |
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In 1951 only two of the five permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] (UNSC) were parties to the CPPCG: France and the Republic of China(Taiwan). The CPPCG was ratified by the Soviet Union in 1954, the United Kingdom in 1970, the People's Republic of China in 1983 (having replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the United States in 1988. In the 1990s the international law on the crime of genocide began to be enforced. |
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====Bosnia and Herzegovina==== |
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{{See also|Bosnian genocide|Srebrenica massacre}} |
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[[File:Srebrenica Massacre - Exhumed Grave of Victims - Potocari 2007.jpg|thumb|Exhumed mass grave of Srebrenica massacre victims in 2007]] |
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In July 1995 Serbian forces killed more than 8,000<ref name="potocarimc.ba">{{cite web|url=http://www.potocarimc.ba/_ba/liste/nestali_a.php|title=Srebrenica-Potočari: spomen obilježje i mezarje za žrtve genocida iz 1995 godine. Liste žrtava prema prezimenu|trans-title=Srebrenica-Potocari: Memorial and Cemetery for the victims of the genocide of 1995. Lists of victims by surname|language=bs|date=1995|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418221608/http://www.potocarimc.ba/_ba/liste/nestali_a.php|archive-date=18 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=ICTY: The Conflicts|publisher=[[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]]|access-date=5 August 2013|url=http://www.icty.org/sid/322}} |
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* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2jrsEaRIzFkC&pg=PA81|title=The United Nations |author=Kirsten Nakjavani Bookmiller|year=2008|publisher= Infobase Publishing |access-date=4 August 2013|isbn=978-1438102993 }}, p. 81. |
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* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0J_JZbLElKkC&pg=PA25|title=Victory Has a Thousand Fathers: Sources of Success in Counterinsurgency |first1=Christopher |last1=Paul |first2=Colin P. |last2=Clarke |first3=Beth |last3=Grill |year=2010|publisher= Rand Corporation |access-date=4 August 2013|isbn=978-0833050786 }}, p. 25. |
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* {{cite news | title = Mladic Arrives in The Hague |date = 31 May 2011| work = The New York Times | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/01/world/europe/01serbia.html | first=Marlise | last=Simons}}</ref> [[Bosniaks]] (Bosnian Muslims), mainly men and boys, both in and around the town of [[Srebrenica]] during the [[Bosnian War]]. The killing was perpetrated by units of the [[Army of Republika Srpska]] (VRS) [[command responsibility|which were under the command]] of General [[Ratko Mladić]]. The Secretary-General of the United Nations described the [[mass murder]] as the worst crime on European soil since the Second World War.<ref name="UN SecGen 10th anniv">[https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sgsm9993.doc.htm UN Press Release SG/SM/9993UN, 11/07/2005 "Secretary-General Kofi Annan’s message to the ceremony marking the tenth anniversary of the Srebrenica massacre in Potocari-Srebrenica"]. Retrieved 9 August 2010.</ref><ref name="iwpr.net">Institute for War and Peace Reporting, Tribunal Update: Briefly Noted (TU No 398, 18 March 2005) [http://www.iwpr.net/?p=tri&s=f&o=235656&apc_state=henitri2005]</ref> A paramilitary unit from [[Republic of Serbia (1990–2006)|Serbia]] known as the [[Scorpions (paramilitary)|Scorpions]], officially a part of the Serbian Interior Ministry until 1991, participated in the massacre,<ref name="Williams">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/24/AR2005062401501_pf.html |title=Srebrenica Video Vindicates Long Pursuit by Serb Activist |work=The Washington Post |access-date=26 May 2011 |first=Daniel |last=Williams}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/kordic_cerkez/tjug/en/kor-tj010226e.pdf |title=ICTY – Kordic and Cerkez Judgement – 3. After the Conflict |access-date=11 July 2012}}</ref> along with several hundred Russian and [[Greek Volunteer Guard|Greek]] volunteers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XS1vHuAgcZgC&pg=PA3|title=Memories of Mass Repression: Narrating Life Stories in the Aftermath of Atrocity |first=Norman M.|last=Naimark|year=2011|publisher= Transaction Publishers |access-date=4 August 2013|isbn=978-1412812047 }}, p. 3. |
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* {{cite web | title = Greece faces shame of role in Serb massacre |date = 5 January 2013 | newspaper = The Guardian | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jan/05/balkans.warcrimes}}</ref> |
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In 2001 the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] (ICTY) delivered its first conviction for the crime of genocide, against General [[Radislav Krstić|Krstić]] for his role in the 1995 Srebrenica massacre (on appeal he was found not guilty of genocide but was instead found guilty of aiding and abetting genocide).<ref>The [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] found in [https://archive.today/20120525111049/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2001/8.html Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001)] that genocide had been committed. (see paragraph 560 for name of group in English on whom the genocide was committed). The judgement was upheld in ''[https://archive.today/20120529184845/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2004/7.html Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Appeals Chamber – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004)]''</ref> |
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In February 2007 the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ) returned a judgement in the [[Bosnian Genocide Case]]. It upheld the ICTY's findings that genocide had been committed in and around Srebrenica but did not find that genocide had been committed on the wider territory of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] during the war. The ICJ also ruled that [[Serbia]] was not responsible for the genocide nor was it responsible for "aiding and abetting it", although it ruled that Serbia could have done more to prevent the genocide and that Serbia failed to punish the perpetrators.<ref>{{cite news|first=Arthur|last=Max|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2007/02/26/international/i033600S38.DTL&type=politics|title=Court: Serbia failed to prevent genocide|publisher=The San Francisco Chronicle|agency=Associated Press|date=26 February 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810091849/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fn%2Fa%2F2007%2F02%2F26%2Finternational%2Fi033600S38.DTL&type=politics|archive-date=10 August 2007|df=dmy}}</ref> Before this ruling the term [[Bosnian Genocide]] had been used by some academics<ref name=UCR>{{cite web|url=http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/hnpg036p.htm|title=HNPG 036P (or 033T) History: Bosnian Genocide In the Historical Perspective|publisher=University of California Riverside|date=2003|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516181854/http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/hnpg036p.htm|archive-date=16 May 2007|df=dmy}}<br>{{cite web|url=https://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2007.htm|title=Winter 2007 Honors Courses|publisher=University of California Riverside|date=2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810134723/http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2007.htm|archive-date=10 August 2007|df=dmy}}<br>{{cite web|url=http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2008.htm|title=Winter 2008 Honors Courses|publisher=University of California Riverside|date=2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029073204/http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2008.htm|archive-date=29 October 2007|df=dmy}}</ref> and human rights officials.<ref name=HRW>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2001/12/11/milosevic-face-bosnian-genocide-charges|title=Milosevic to Face Bosnian Genocide Charges|work=[[Human Rights Watch]]|date=11 December 2001|access-date=10 April 2016}}</ref> |
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In 2010, [[Vujadin Popović]], [[Lieutenant Colonel]] and the Chief of Security of the Drina Corps of the [[Bosnian Serb Army]], and [[Ljubiša Beara]], [[Colonel]] and Chief of Security of the same army, were convicted of genocide, extermination, murder and persecution by the ICTY for their role in the Srebrenica massacre and were each sentenced to life in prison.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/06/10/hague.srebrenica.verdict/?hpt=T1 |title=Seven convicted over 1995 Srebrenica massacre |publisher=CNN |date=10 June 2010}} |
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* {{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/10283403 |title=Life for Bosnian Serbs over genocide at Srebrenica |work=BBC News |date=10 June 2010}} |
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* {{Cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article7147500.ece |title=Hague court sentences Bosnian Serbs to life for Srebrenica genocide |work=Times Online |date=10 June 2010 | location=London | first=David | last=Charter}} |
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* {{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/bosnia/7818653/Bosnian-Serbs-convicted-of-genocide-over-Srebrenica-massacre.html |title=Bosnian Serbs convicted of genocide over Srebrenica massacre |work=The Telegraph |date=10 June 2010 | location=London | first=Bruno | last=Waterfield}}</ref> In 2016 and 2017, [[Radovan Karadžić]]<ref>{{cite news | newspaper=The Hindu | date=24 March 2016 | title=Radovan Karadzic sentenced to 40-year imprisonment for Srebrenica genocide, war crimes | url= http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/Radovan-Karadzic-sentenced-to-40-year-imprisonment-for-Srebrenica-genocide-war-crimes/article14173135.ece }}</ref> and Ratko Mladić were sentenced for genocide.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=58143#.WhadpdLiXIU|title=UN hails conviction of Mladic, the 'epitome of evil,' a momentous victory for justice|date=22 November 2017|publisher=UN News Centre|access-date=23 November 2017}}</ref> |
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German courts handed down convictions for genocide during the [[Bosnian War]]. [[Novislav Djajic]] was indicted for his participation in the genocide, but the Higher Regional Court failed to find that there was sufficient certainty for a criminal conviction for genocide. Nevertheless, Djajic was found guilty of 14 counts of murder and one count of attempted murder.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/135/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html|title=Novislav Djajic|work=Trial Watch|date=19 June 2013|access-date=15 February 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214040321/http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/135/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html|archive-date=14 February 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> At Djajic's appeal on 23 May 1997, the [[Bavaria]]n Appeals Chamber found that acts of genocide were committed in June 1992, confined within the administrative district of [[Foča|Foca]].<ref>[https://archive.today/20120525111049/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2001/8.html Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001)], The [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]], paragraph 589. citing Bavarian Appeals Court, ''Novislav Djajic'' case, 23 May 1997, 3 St 20/96, section VI, p. 24 of the English translation.</ref> The Higher Regional Court ([[Oberlandesgericht]]) of Düsseldorf, in September 1997, handed down a genocide conviction against [[Nikola Jorgic]], a [[Bosnian Serb]] from the [[Doboj]] region who was the leader of a paramilitary group located in the Doboj region. He was sentenced to four terms of [[life imprisonment]] for his involvement in genocidal actions that took place in regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, other than Srebrenica;<ref name=Jorgic>Oberlandesgericht Düsseldorf, "Public Prosecutor v Jorgic", 26 September 1997 (Trial Watch) ''[http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/283/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html Nikola Jorgic] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224162507/http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/283/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html |date=24 February 2014 }}''</ref> and "On 29 November 1999, the Higher Regional Court (Oberlandesgericht) of Düsseldorf condemned [[Maksim Sokolovic]] to 9 years in prison for aiding and abetting the crime of genocide and for grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions."<ref>Trial watch ''[http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/139/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html Maksim Sokolovic] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706082940/http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/139/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html |date=6 July 2015 }}''</ref> |
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====Rwanda==== |
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The [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of offences committed in [[Rwanda]] during the [[Rwandan genocide|genocide that occurred there]] during April and May 1994, commencing on 6 April. The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the UN Security Council to resolve claims in Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994. For approximately 100 days from the assassination of President [[Juvénal Habyarimana]] on 6 April through mid-July, at least 800,000 people were killed, according to a Human Rights Watch estimate. |
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As of mid-2011, the ICTR had convicted 57 people and acquitted 8. Another ten persons were still on trial while [[Bernard Munyagishari|one]] is awaiting trial. Nine remain at large.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unictr.org/Cases/StatusofCases/tabid/204/Default.aspx|title=United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Status of Cases|publisher=ICTR|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813085127/http://www.unictr.org/Cases/StatusofCases/tabid/204/Default.aspx|archive-date=13 August 2011}}</ref> The first trial, of [[Jean Akayesu|Jean-Paul Akayesu]], ended in 1998 with his conviction for genocide and crimes against humanity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unictr.org/Cases/tabid/127/PID/18/default.aspx?id=4&mnid=4|title=United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Status of Cases|work=[[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda|ICRT]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202141407/http://www.unictr.org/Cases/StatusofCases/tabid/204/Default.aspx|archive-date=2 December 2012}}</ref> This was the world's first conviction for genocide, as defined by the 1948 Convention. [[Jean Kambanda]], interim Prime Minister during the genocide, pleaded guilty. |
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====Cambodia==== |
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{{See also|The Killing Fields|Autogenocide|Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum|Cambodian genocide|Cambodian genocide denial}} |
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[[File:Skulls from the killing fields.jpg|thumb|Skulls at the [[Choeung Ek]] memorial in Cambodia]] |
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The [[Khmer Rouge]], led by [[Pol Pot]], [[Ta Mok]] and other leaders, organized the mass killing of ideologically suspect groups, ethnic minorities such as ethnic Vietnamese, Chinese (or Sino-Khmers), [[Cham (Asia)|Cham]]s and [[Thai People|Thais]], former civil servants, former government soldiers, [[Buddhist monk]]s, secular intellectuals and professionals, and former city dwellers. Khmer Rouge cadres defeated in factional struggles were also liquidated in [[purge]]s. Man-made famine and slave labor resulted in many hundreds of thousands of deaths.<ref name="Sliwinski1995">{{cite book|first=Marek|last=Sliwinski|title=Le génocide khmer rouge: une analyse démographique|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B4RAunnjWRsC|year=1995|publisher=Harmattan|isbn=978-2-7384-3525-5|pages= 82}}</ref> Craig Etcheson suggested that the death toll was between 2 and 2.5 million, with a "most likely" figure of 2.2 million. After 5 years of researching 20,000 grave sites, he concluded that "these mass graves contain the remains of 1,386,734 victims of execution."<ref>{{cite web|last=Sharp|first=Bruce|title=Counting Hell: The Death Toll of the Khmer Rouge Regime in Cambodia|date = 1 April 2005|url = http://www.mekong.net/cambodia/deaths.htm|access-date =13 January 2013}}</ref> However, some scholars argued that the Khmer Rouge were not [[Racism|racist]] and had no intention of exterminating ethnic minorities or the Cambodian people; in this view, their brutality was the product of an extreme version of communist ideology.<ref>{{Cite book|title= Red Holocaust |last= Rosefielde |first= Steven |author-link= Steven Rosefielde |year= 2009 |publisher= [[Routledge]] |isbn= 978-0-415-77757-5 |title-link= Red Holocaust (2009 book) }}</ref> |
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On 6 June 2003 the Cambodian government and the United Nations reached an agreement to set up the [[Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia]] (ECCC), which would focus exclusively on crimes committed by the most senior Khmer Rouge officials during the period of [[Democratic Kampuchea|Khmer Rouge rule from 1975 to 1979]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unakrt-online.org/Docs/GA%20Documents/A-Res-57-228B.pdf|title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly: 57/228 Khmer Rouge trials B1|work=United Nations General Assembly|date=22 May 2003|access-date=11 December 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703061139/http://www.unakrt-online.org/Docs/GA%20Documents/A-Res-57-228B.pdf|archive-date=3 July 2007}}</ref> The judges were sworn in <!-- not a mistake-->in early July 2006.<ref name="KD-Time">{{cite news|first=Kevin |last=Doyle |url=http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1647257,00.html |title=Putting the Khmer Rouge on Trial |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=26 July 2007 |access-date=13 February 2016 }} |
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*{{cite news|first=Ian|last=MacKinnon|url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,2028421,00.html|title=Crisis talks to save Khmer Rouge trial|newspaper=The Guardian|date=7 March 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116020356/http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0%2C%2C2028421%2C00.html|archive-date=16 November 2007|df=dmy}} |
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*{{cite web|url=http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/krt/english/ |title=The Khmer Rouge Trial Task Force |work=Royal Cambodian Government |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050403182720/http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/krt/english/ |archive-date=3 April 2005 }}</ref> |
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The investigating judges were presented with the names of five possible suspects by the prosecution on 18 July 2007.<ref name="KD-Time"/><ref name=Buncombe>{{cite news|first=Andrew |last=Buncombe |title=Judge quits Cambodia genocide tribunal |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/judge-quits-cambodia-genocide-tribunal-2368644.html |location=London |date=11 October 2011}}</ref> [[File:KSAMPHAN3July2009-1.jpg|thumb|Khieu Samphan at a public hearing before the Pre-Trial [[Cambodia Tribunal]] on 3 July 2009.]] |
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* [[Kang Kek Iew]] was formally charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity and detained by the Tribunal on 31 July 2007. He was indicted on charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity on 12 August 2008.<ref name="ap-munthit-2008-08-12">{{Cite news|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-08-12-1013612312_x.htm |title=Cambodian tribunal indicts Khmer Rouge jailer |first=Ker |last=Munthit |newspaper=[[USA Today]]|agency=Associated Press |date=12 August 2008 |access-date=5 February 2017}}</ref> His appeal was rejected on 3 February 2012, and he continued serving a sentence of life imprisonment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/kaing-guek-eav-alias-duch-sentenced-life-imprisonment-supreme-court-chamber-0 |title=Kaing Guek Eav alias Duch Sentenced to Life Imprisonment by the Supreme Court Chamber |publisher=Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia |date=3 February 2012 |access-date=5 February 2017}}</ref> |
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* [[Nuon Chea]], a former prime minister, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 19 September 2007. His trial began on 27 June 2011.<ref name="Case-002">{{cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/case/topic/2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517092819/http://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/case/topic/2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 May 2011 |title=Case 002 |publisher=Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia |access-date=5 February 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Case-002 closing-order">{{cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/courtdoc/D427Eng.pdf |title=002/19-09-2007: Closing Order |publisher=Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia |date=15 September 2010 |access-date=5 February 2017}}</ref> On 16 November 2018, he was sentenced to a life in prison for genocide.<ref name="UN genocide adviser welcomes historic conviction of former Khmer Rouge leaders">{{cite news|title=UN genocide adviser welcomes historic conviction of former Khmer Rouge leaders |publisher=UN News| date=16 November 2018| url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/11/1025981| access-date=18 November 2018}}</ref> |
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* [[Khieu Samphan]], a former head of state, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 19 September 2007. His trial also began on 27 June 2011.<ref name="Case-002"/><ref name="Case-002 closing-order"/> On 16 November 2018, he was sentenced to a life in prison for genocide.<ref name="UN genocide adviser welcomes historic conviction of former Khmer Rouge leaders"/> |
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* [[Ieng Sary]], a former foreign minister, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007. His trial began on 27 June 2011.<ref name="Case-002"/><ref name="Case-002 closing-order"/> He died in March 2013. |
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* [[Ieng Thirith]], wife of Ieng Sary and a former minister for social affairs, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. She was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007. Proceedings against her have been suspended pending a health evaluation.<ref name="Case-002 closing-order"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/courtdoc/E138_1_7_EN-1.PDF |title=002/19-09-2007: Decision on immediate appeal against Trial Chamber's order to release the accused Ieng Thirith |publisher=Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia |date=13 December 2011 |access-date=5 February 2017}}</ref> |
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Some of the international jurists and the Cambodian government disagreed over whether any other people should be tried by the Tribunal.<ref name=Buncombe/> |
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===International Criminal Court=== |
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{{See also|International Criminal Court}} |
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The ICC can only prosecute crimes committed on or after 1 July 2002.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://legal.un.org/icc/statute/99_corr/cstatute.htm|title=Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: Article 11|publisher=[[United Nations Office of Legal Affairs]]|date=17 July 1999|access-date=4 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ICC/About+the+Court|title=ICC: About the court|publisher=[[International Criminal Court|ICC]]|access-date=6 February 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100309082156/http://www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ICC/About%2Bthe%2BCourt|archive-date=9 March 2010}}</ref> |
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====Darfur, Sudan==== |
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{{See also|Second Sudanese Civil War|War in Darfur|Darfur genocide}} |
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[[File:Omar al-Bashir, 12th AU Summit, 090131-N-0506A-342.jpg|thumb|Sudanese President [[Omar al-Bashir]], wanted by the ICC]] |
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The ongoing [[Racism in Sudan|racial]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/witnessing-genocide-in-sudan-08-10-2004/|publisher=CBS News|title=Witnessing Genocide in Sudan|date=8 October 2004|access-date=10 April 2016}} |
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<br>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0714/p09s02-coop.html Racism at root of Sudan's Darfur crisis – CSMonitor.com] |
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<br>{{cite web |url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/2008/11/07/op-ed/humanitarian-intervention-in-darfur-a-viable-option/ |title=Humanitarian Intervention in Darfur: A Viable Option? |date=7 November 2008 |publisher=Turkishweekly.net |access-date=9 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108232607/http://www.turkishweekly.net/2008/11/07/op-ed/humanitarian-intervention-in-darfur-a-viable-option/ |archive-date=8 January 2016 |df=dmy-all }} |
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<br>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091208024419/http://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/33606981/Darfurs-Sorrow-A-History-of-Destruction-and-Genocide Encyclopædia Britannica<!-- Bot generated title -->] |
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<br>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14094995 | work=BBC News | title=Sudan country profile | date=27 April 2010 | access-date=3 May 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/03/04/albashir-arrest-warrant-i_n_171703.html |work=Huffington Post |title=Al-Bashir Arrest Warrant Issued By International Criminal Court |date=4 March 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100221202708/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/03/04/albashir-arrest-warrant-i_n_171703.html |archive-date=21 February 2010 }} |
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<br>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070128121659/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/africa/darfur/militia.html The Online NewsHour: Crisis in Sudan | Janjaweed Militia | PBS<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[War in Darfur|conflict]] in [[Darfur]], [[Sudan]], which started in 2003, was declared a genocide by [[United States Secretary of State]] [[Colin Powell]] on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the [[United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|Senate Foreign Relations Committee]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040911045335/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/sudan_09-09-04.html Powell Declares Killing in Darfur 'Genocide'], [[The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer]], 9 September 2004</ref> Since that time however, no other permanent member of the UN Security Council has followed suit. In January 2005, an [[International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur]], authorized by [[UN Security Council Resolution 1564]] of 2004, issued a report stating that "the Government of the Sudan has not pursued a policy of genocide."<ref name="un-org-January-25-2005">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/News/dh/sudan/com_inq_darfur.pdf|title=Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General|publisher=United Nations|page=4|date=25 January 2005|access-date=5 February 2017}}</ref> Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned that "The conclusion that no genocidal policy has been pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government authorities, directly or through the militias under their control, should not be taken in any way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region. International offences such as the crimes against humanity and war crimes that have been committed in Darfur may be no less serious and heinous than genocide."<ref name="un-org-January-25-2005"/> |
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In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the ICC, taking into account the Commission report but without mentioning any specific crimes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/cases/N0529273.darfureferral.eng.pdf|title=Security Council Resolution 1593 (2005)|publisher=United Nations Security Council|date=31 March 2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050529082238/http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/cases/N0529273.darfureferral.eng.pdf|archive-date=29 May 2005|df=dmy}}</ref> Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution.<ref>[https://www.un.org/press/en/2005/sc8351.doc.htm Security Council Refers Situation in Darfur, Sudan, to Prosecutor of International Criminal Court], UN Press Release SC/8351, 31 March 2005</ref> As of his fourth report to the Security Council, the Prosecutor found "reasonable grounds to believe that the individuals identified [in the [[UN Security Council Resolution 1593]]] have committed crimes against humanity and war crimes", but did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute for genocide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/OTP_ReportUNSC4-Darfur_English.pdf|title=Fourth Report of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, to the Security Council pursuant to UNSC 1593 (2005)|publisher=International Criminal Court (ICC)|date=14 December 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614011746/http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/OTP_ReportUNSC4-Darfur_English.pdf|archive-date=14 June 2007|df=dmy}}</ref> |
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In April 2007, the ICC issued arrest warrants against the former Minister of State for the Interior, [[Ahmad Harun]], and a [[Janjaweed]] militia leader, [[Ali Kushayb]], for crimes against humanity and war crimes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/ICC-OTP-ST20080605-ENG.pdf|title=Statement by Mr. Luis Moreno Ocampo, Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, to the United Nations Security Council pursuant to UNSCR 1593 (2005)|publisher=International Criminal Court (ICC)|date=5 June 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080813022926/http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/ICC-OTP-ST20080605-ENG.pdf|archive-date=13 August 2008}}</ref> On 14 July 2008, the ICC filed ten charges of [[war crimes]] against Sudan's President [[Omar al-Bashir]], three counts of genocide, five of [[crimes against humanity]] and two of murder. Prosecutors claimed that al-Bashir "masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part" three tribal groups in Darfur because of their ethnicity.<ref name="Guardian-2008-jul-14">{{Cite news|first= Peter |last=Walker|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/14/sudan.warcrimes1?gusrc=rss&feed=worldnews |title=Darfur genocide charges for Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir |access-date=15 July 2008 |work=The Guardian |date=14 July 2008 | location=London}}</ref> On 4 March 2009 the ICC issued a warrant for al-Bashir's arrest for crimes against humanity and war crimes, but not for genocide. This is the first warrant issued by the ICC against a sitting head of state.<ref>Staff. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7923102.stm Warrant issued for Sudan's leader], BBC, 4 March 2009</ref> |
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==See also== |
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{{Portal|Genocide}} |
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{{columns-list|colwidth=30em| |
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*[[Anti-communist mass killings]] |
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*{{Section link|Anti-Mongolianism|State-sponsored genocides by the Russian Empire/Soviet Russia, Imperial China/Communist China}} |
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*[[Black genocide]] – the notion that [[African Americans]] have been subjected to genocide |
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*[[Classicide]] |
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*[[Command responsibility]] |
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*[[Crimes against humanity]] |
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*[[Crimes against humanity under Communist regimes]] |
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*[[Democide]] – [[murder]] by government, includes historical genocides and [[politicide]]s |
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*[[Genocide of indigenous peoples]] |
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*[[Persecution of Christians by ISIL]] |
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*[[Genocide of Shias by ISIL]] |
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*[[Genocide of Yazidis by ISIL]] |
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*[[Human rights]] |
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*[[International humanitarian law]] |
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*[[International law]] |
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*[[List of events named massacres]] |
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*[[List of genocides by death toll]] |
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*[[Mass killings under Communist regimes]] |
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}} |
}} |
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==Notes== |
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{{notelist}} |
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==References== |
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'''Citations''' |
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{{Reflist}} |
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'''Bibliography''' |
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* {{cite web |first1=Dave |last1=Kopel |first2=Paul |last2=Gallant |first3=Joanne D. |last3=Eisen |title=A Moriori Lesson: a brief history of pacifism |work=National Review Online |date=11 April 2003 |url=https://www.nationalreview.com/kopel/kopel041103.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030411221908/http://www.nationalreview.com/kopel/kopel041103.asp |archive-date=11 April 2003 }} |
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* {{cite book|first=Mark |last=Levene|title=Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2: The Rise of the West and Coming Genocide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3PsLXeDflfMC|date=2005|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-057-4 }} |
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* {{Cite book|last= Levene|first= Mark| year= 2008| chapter= Empires, Native Peoples, and Genocides | editor-first = A. Dirk | editor-last = Moses|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC|title= Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History|pages=183–204|location = Oxford and New York | publisher =Berghahn |isbn= 978-1-84545-452-4 }} |
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* {{Cite journal |last= Madley |first= Benjamin |year= 2008 | title= From Terror to Genocide: Britain's Tasmanian Penal Colony and Australia's History Wars |journal= [[Journal of British Studies]] | volume= 47 | issue = 1 |pages= 77–106 |jstor= 10.1086/522350 |doi= 10.1086/522350}} |
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* {{Citation | last = McCarthy | first = Justin | title = Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922 | publisher = Darwin | year = 1995}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Mey|first=Wolfgang, ed.|year=1984|title=Genocide in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh|location=Copenhagen|publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs ([[IWGIA]])|url=http://www.iwgia.org/iwgia_files_publications_files/0172_51.pdf}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Moshin|first=A.|year=2003|title=The Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh: On the Difficult Road to Peace|location=Boulder, Col.|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers}} |
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* {{cite book|last1=Niewyk |first1=Donald L. |first2=Francis R. |last2=Nicosia|title=The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2000 |page=[https://archive.org/details/columbiaguidetot00niew/page/45 45] |quote=The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II. |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaguidetot00niew|url-access=registration }} |
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* {{cite book|last=O'Brien|first=Sharon|chapter=The Chittagong Hill Tracts|title=Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity|editor-first=Dinah|editor-last=Shelton|publisher=Macmillan Library Reference|year=2004|pages=176–77}} |
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* {{cite book|first=Cormac |last=Ó Gráda|title=Black '47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, and Memory|url=https://archive.org/details/black47beyondgre00ogra|url-access=registration |year=2000|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-07015-5|page= [https://archive.org/details/black47beyondgre00ogra/page/10 10] }} |
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* {{Cite book |last1=Olusoga |first1=David |last2=Erichsen |first2=Casper W. |year=2010 |title=The Kaiser's Holocaust: Germany's Forgotten Genocide and the Colonial Roots of Nazism |location=London |publisher=[[Faber and Faber]] |isbn=978-0571231416 }} |
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* {{Cite book|last=Perdue|first=Peter C.|year=2005|url=https://archive.org/details/chinamarcheswest00pete|title=China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia|location=Cambridge, MA; London|publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01684-2}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Robins |first1=Nicholas |last2=Jones |first2=Adam |title=Genocides by the Oppressed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AX3UCk_PdEwC |publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-253-22077-6}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Roy|first=Rajkumari|year=2000|title=Land Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh |location=Copenhagen |publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs}} |
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* {{Cite book |
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| last = Rubinstein |
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| first = W. D. |
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| title = Genocide: A History |
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| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA47 |
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| publisher = Pearson Education |
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| year = 2004 |
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| isbn = 978-0-582-50601-5 }} |
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* {{cite book|first=Rudolph J. |last=Rummel|title=Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LFDWp7O9_dIC|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-4010-5 |year=1998 }} |
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* {{Cite book|last=Sarkin-Hughes |first=Jeremy |title=Colonial Genocide and Reparations Claims in the 21st Century: The Socio-Legal Context of Claims under International Law by the Herero against Germany for Genocide in Namibia, 1904–1908 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVX3XcuC9akC |date=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-36257-6 }} |
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* {{cite book|first1=Abdul |last1=Sheriff |first2=Ed |last2=Ferguson|title=Zanzibar under colonial rule|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ji1zAAAAMAAJ|year=1991|publisher=J. Currey|isbn=978-0-8214-0996-1 }} |
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* {{Cite journal |last= Sommer |first= Tomasz |year= 2010 |title= Execute the Poles: The Genocide of Poles in the Soviet Union, 1937–1938. Documents from Headquarters | journal = [[The Polish Review]] |volume = 55 | issue = 4 | pages= 417–36 |jstor= 27920673 }} |
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*{{citation|last=Speller|first=Ian|title=An African Cuba? Britain and the Zanzibar Revolution, 1964.|journal=Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History|year=2007|volume=35|issue=2|pages=1–35|url=http://eprints.maynoothuniversity.ie/841/|doi=10.1080/03086530701337666|s2cid=159656717}} |
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* {{cite book|first=David E.|last=Stannard|title=American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World|url=https://archive.org/details/americanholocaus00stan|date=1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-508557-0|quote=... estimated population for the year 1769 ... Nationwide by this time only about one-third of one percent of America's population—250,000 out of 76,000,000 people—were natives. The worst human holocaust the world had ever witnessed ... finally had leveled off. There was, at last, almost no one left to kill.}} |
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* {{cite book |
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| last = Tan |
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| first = Mely G. |
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| author-link = Mely G. Tan |
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| year = 2008 |
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| language = id |
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| title = Etnis Tionghoa di Indonesia: Kumpulan Tulisan |
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|trans-title=Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia: A Collection of Writings |
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| publisher = Yayasan Obor Indonesia |
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| location = Jakarta |
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| isbn = 978-979-461-689-5 |
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}} |
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* {{Citation |last = van Bruineßen |first = Martin |url = http://www.let.uu.nl/~Martin.vanBruinessen/personal/publications/Dersim_rebellion.pdf | contribution = Genocide in Kurdistan? The suppression of the Dersim rebellion in Turkey (1937–38) and the chemical war against the Iraqi Kurds (1988) | editor-first = George J | editor-last = Andreopoulos | title = Conceptual and historical dimensions of genocide | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press | year = 1994 | pages = 141–70 | access-date = 24 December 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130521155242/http://www.let.uu.nl/~Martin.vanBruinessen/personal/publications/Dersim_rebellion.pdf | archive-date = 21 May 2013 | url-status = dead | df = dmy-all }} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Vanthemsche |first=Guy |year=2012 |title=Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImNjdlBHzukC&q=Leopold%201908%20Congo%20atrocities&pg=PA41 |location=Cambridge; New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521194211 }} |
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* {{Cite journal |last1=Weisbord |first1=Robert G. |year=2003 |title=The King, the Cardinal and the Pope: Leopold II's genocide in the Congo and the Vatican |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=5 |pages=35–45 |doi=10.1080/14623520305651 |s2cid=73371517 }} |
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* {{Cite journal|title=The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849|journal=Signet: New York|year=1964| author-link=Cecil Woodham-Smith|last=Woodham-Smith|first=Cecil|page=19}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Wright |first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Wright |year=2004 |title=A Short History of Progress |location=Toronto |publisher=House of Anansi Press |isbn=978-0-88784-706-6 |title-link=A Short History of Progress }} |
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{{Refend}} |
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==External links== |
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* [http://www.combatgenocide.org/ Combat Genocide Association website] |
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* {{Citation | url = http://gsp.yale.edu/ | title = Genocide Studies Program | publisher = [[Yale University]]}}. |
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* [http://www.trueactivist.com/when-you-kill-ten-million-africans-you-arent-called-hitler/ King Leopold II of Belgium] |
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[[Category:Genocides| ]] |
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