Mirrors for princes

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Mirrors for princes or mirrors of princes (Latin: specula principum) was a literary genre of didactic political writings throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It was part of the broader speculum or mirror literature genre.

The Latin term speculum regum appears as early as the 12th century and may have been used even earlier. It may have developed from the popular speculum literature popular from the 12th to 16th centuries, focusing on knowledge of a particular subject matter.

These texts most frequently take the form of textbooks for the instruction of kings, princes, or lesser rulers on successful governance and behaviour. The term is also used for histories or literary works presenting model images of good and bad kings. Authors often composed such "mirrors" at the accession of a new king, when a young and inexperienced ruler was about to come to power. One could view them as a species of prototypical self-help book or study of leadership before the concept of a "leader" became more generalised than the concept of a monarchical head-of-state.[1]

One of the earliest works was written by Sedulius Scottus (fl. 840–860), the Irish poet associated with the Pangur Bán gloss poem (c. 9th century). Possibly the best known European "mirror" is The Prince (c. 1513) by Niccolo Machiavelli, although this was not the most typical example.

Antiquity

Sumer

Egypt

See also: Sebayt

Indian

Greek and Roman

Western European texts

Early Middle Ages

  • Pope Gregory the Great, The Book of Pastoral Rule (590AD) Although dedicated to clergy, lessons may also apply to nobles.
  • Gregory of Tours' History of the Franks (late 6th century) which warns against internal strife.
  • De duodecim abusivis saeculi, 'On the twelve abuses of the world' (7th century), a Hiberno-Latin treatise by an anonymous Irish author sometimes referred to as Pseudo-Cyprian. This work, though not a 'mirror for princes' per se, was to be of great influence on the development of the 'genre' as it took place on the Continent.

Carolingian texts. Notable examples of Carolingian textbooks for kings, counts and other laymen include:

Irish texts

  • see De duodecim abusivis saeculi above. The vernacular mirrors differ from most texts mentioned here in that the ones who are described as giving and receiving advice are commonly legendary figures.
  • Audacht Morainn ('The Testament of Morand'), written c. 700, an Old Irish text which has been called a forerunner of the 'mirrors for princes'.[3] The legendary wise judge Morand is said to have sent advice to Feradach Find Fechtnach when the latter was about to be made King of Tara.[4]
  • Tecosca Cormaic, 'The Instructions of Cormac', in which the speaker Cormac mac Airt is made to instruct his son Cairbre Lifechair about a variety of matters.
  • Bríatharthecosc Con Culainn 'The precept-instruction of Cúchulainn' (interpolated in Serglige Con Culainn), addressed to Lugaid Réoderg.
  • Tecosc Cuscraid 'The instruction of Cuscraid'
  • Senbríathra Fithail 'The ancient precepts of Fíthal'
  • Briathra Flainn Fína 'The Sayings of Flann Fína'[5]

High Middle Ages

Late Middle Ages

Renaissance

Enlightenment

Modern

Byzantine texts

See also: Basilikos logos

Pre-Islamic Persian texts

  • Ewen-Nāmag (“Book of Rules”): On the Sasanian manners, customs, skills, and arts, sciences, etc.[14] (Between 3rd - 7th century AD)
  • Andarz literature.[15] (Between 3rd - 7th century AD)

Islamic texts

See also: Nasîhatnâme

Slavonic texts

Chinese texts

Ancient

  • Tao Te Ching – Lao Tzu Chinese philosopher (Can be interpreted as a mystical text, philosophical text, or political treatise on rulership) (late 4th century BC)
  • Mencius – moral advice for a ruler (late 4th century BC)
  • Han Fei Zi – Legalist text advice for a ruler and the art of statecraft (mid-3rd century BC) dedicated to Qin Shi Huang
  • The Book of Lord Shang (Multiple authors spanning centuries, starting from c. 330BC) text advice useful for a ruler and statecraft
  • Shizi (c. 330BC) particularly section 15, The Ruler's Governance

Imperial Dynasties

Han Dynasty

Tang Dynasty

  • Ouyang Xun (624AD) Yiwen leiju 藝文類聚 ("Classified collection based on the Classics and other literature")
  • Kong Yingda (642AD) Wujing Zhengyi 五經正義 ("Correct Meaning of the Five Classics")
  • Liu Zhi (7th century AD) Zhengdian 政典 ("Manual of politics"), a political encyclopaedia useful for young boys taking the Imperial Examination

Song Dynasty

Ming Dynasty

Qing Dynasty

In popular culture

See also

References

  1. ^ Compare: Wilson, Suze; Cummings, Stephen; Jackson, Brad; Proctor-Thomson, Sarah (2017). Revitalising Leadership: Putting Theory and Practice into Context. Routledge Studies in Leadership Research. Routledge. ISBN 9781317418122. Retrieved 2017-10-22. Monarchy was then the most common form of governance in Europe, and the truth about leadership could be found in a genre of books known as 'mirrors for princes' [...].
  2. ^ A. Dubreucq (ed.), Jonas d'Orléans, Le métier du roi (De institutione regia). Sources Chrétiennes 407. Paris, 1995. pp. 45–9.
  3. ^ Rob Meens. "Politics, mirrors of princes and the Bible: sins, kings and the well-being of the realm." Early Medieval Europe 7.3 (1998): 352
  4. ^ Kelly, Fergus, ed. (1976). Audacht Morainn. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. ISBN 0901282677.
  5. ^ Ireland, Colin A., ed. (1999). Old Irish Wisdom Attributed to Aldfrith of Northumbria: An Edition of Bríathra Flainn Fhína Maic Ossu. Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies. ISBN 0866982477.
  6. ^ Guibert de Tournai (1914). de Poorter, A. (ed.). Le traité Eruditio regum et principum de Guibert de Tournai : étude critique et texte inédit. Louvain.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  7. ^ Vincent de Beauvais (1995). Schneider, Robert J. (ed.). De morali principis institutione. Turnhout: Brepols.
  8. ^ Schneider, Robert J.; Rouse, Richard H. (January 1991). "The Medieval Circulation of the De morali principis institutione of Vincent of Beauvais". Viator. 22: 189–228. doi:10.1484/j.viator.2.301322. ISSN 0083-5897.
  9. ^ M. Pinto de Mencses (ed.). Espelho dos Reis por Alvaro Pais. Lisbon, 1955.
  10. ^ Jean-Philippe Genet (ed.). Four English Political Tracts of the Later Middle Ages Camden Society, 4th ser. 18 (1977). 177-9.
  11. ^ Salter, F.M. "Skelton's Speculum Principis" Speculum 9 (1934): 25–37
  12. ^ Olden-Jørgensen, Sebastian (ed.). Alithia. Et dansk fyrstespejl til Christian IV. UJDS-Studier 14. Copenhagen, 2003.
  13. ^ "Mirror for Princes".
  14. ^ "Āīn-nāmā". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
  15. ^ "Andarz". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2023-05-21.
  16. ^ Dunlop, D.M. (tr.). Fusul al-Madani: Aphorisms of the Statesman. University of Cambridge Oriental Publications. Cambridge, 1961.
  17. ^ Bosworth, C.E. (1998). "al-Maghribī, al-Ḥusayn ibnʿAlī". In Meisami, Julie Scott; Starkey, Paul (eds.). Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, Volume 2: L–Z, Chronological Tables, Index. Routledge. p. 488. ISBN 0-415-18572-6.
  18. ^ Michele Amari (1852) Solwān; or Waters Of Comfort by Ibn Zafer, vol.1.
  19. ^ Michele Amari (1852) Solwān; or Waters Of Comfort by Ibn Zafer, vol.2
  20. ^ Meisami, Julie Scott (tr.). Sea of Precious Virtues. Salt Lake City, 1991.
  21. ^ Sajida Sultana Alvi. Advice on the art of governance. An Indo-Islamic Mirror for Princes. State University of New York Press. 1989.
  22. ^ "Mirrors For Princes (2010): Torino Film Festival". 29 September 2023.

Further reading

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