Conservatism in India

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Conservatism in India refers to expressions of conservative politics in India. Conservative-oriented political parties have included the Bharatiya Janata Party, the Congress Nationalist Party,[1] and the Uttar Pradesh Praja Party. In addition, a number of figures within the Indian National Congress, such as Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel were conservative.[2]

A Pew research survey conducted between late 2019 and early 2020 found that India is a largely conservative country.[3]

History

National level

19th Century : Rise of modern conservatism

Modern Indian conservatism arose as a reaction to colonialism under European powers and the subsequent loss of sovereignty and political power-it harkened back to a glorious Hindu past before the time of foreign invasions.Social and cultural changes laid the groundwork for Hindu revivalism as well as traditionalism.[4]

1906 - 1933 : Establishment of political organisations take place

All-India Muslim League was a political party formed as a response to Hindu opposition(supported by Congress party)to Bengal partition of 1905.It aimed to safeguard the interests of Muslims.This along with the creation of a separate Muslim electorate under Morley-Minto reforms in 1909 consolidated the Hindu Right, resulting in formation of Hindu Mahasabha.[5] Later Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh was started by Keshav Baliram Hedgewar[6] after being disillusioned by the participation of INC in the Khilafat Movement.

1934 - 1976 : Splits from Indian National Congress and formation of Jan Sangh

Conservatism manifested under the aegis of Indian National Congress as well in early to mid 20th century.[7]

Madan Mohan Malaviya along with Madhav Shrihari Aney split away from the party in 1934 in protest of the Communal Award (announced in 1932). They began Congress Nationalist Party afterwards.[8]

Syama Prasad Mukherjee started Bharatiya Jan Sangh in 1951 as a nationalistic alternative to Congress after he left Hindu Maha Sabha.[9] The party platform included legislating a uniform civil code, banning cow slaughter and abolishing the special status given to Jammu and Kashmir.[10] The party was able to form coalition governments after the assembly elections of 1967 in states including Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.[11]

The Swatantra party was formed by right-leaning congress members in response to the socialistic turn of INC after the Nagpur resolution of 1959.They stood for free markets and dismantling of dirigiste policies prevalent at the time.

Later another conservative faction known as the Indian National Congress (Organisation) also split from INC in 1969 due to the left-wing economic policies of Indira Gandhi, like bank nationalisations.[12]

The Swatantra party later merged into Bharatiya Lok Dal in 1974.

Conservative political parties had very limited success in the national arena even in the late 1970s.[13]

1977 - 1980 : Interregnum between Indira governments and Janata Party rule

Congress(O) and Jan Sangh merged into the Janata Party in 1977. The big tent arrangement led to a government whose foreign policy led India towards closer relations with the United States. But it also caused the exit of several multinational companies from the Indian market due to economic nationalism under the Janata rule.[14]

The former Jan Sangh contributed largest number of seats to Janata Party's contingent with 93 seats (31% of the Janata Party seats). The previous leader of Jan Sangh, A.B. Vajpayee was appointed the Minister of External Affairs.[15]

The national leadership of the former Jan Sangh attempted to integrate with the Janata Party but assimilation proved to be a failure since the state and local units retained strong association with RSS.[16].The moderate constituents of Janata Party demanded that they break the connection and revoke dual membership in both RSS and Janata Party.Eventually the coalition rule collapsed due to infighting among members of different ideologies and subsequent economic deterioration.[17].After defeat in the 1980 elections, the party executive council finally banned dual membership to RSS in April of that year. This led to the former Jan Sangh members leaving to create a new party, Bharatiya Janata Party.[18][15]

1980 - 1998 : Emergence of BJP and ascent to power

The electoral misfortune of political conservatism changed with the formation of Bharatiya Janata Party and its later adoption of Ram janmabhoomi campaign which ultimately resulted in BJP going from two seats in 1984 to leading government at the central level in 1996 and 1998.

Vajpayee was named the first president of the party, the bulk of which was identical in rank and file to its predecessor (Jan Sangh).[19]

The party initially had a moderate agenda in contrast to the Jan Sangh and focused on Gandhian socialism and emphasised its earlier links with Janata Party to gain wider appeal. However, the Congress party, riding on a sympathy wave after the assassination of Indira Gandhi, won a landslide victory in the 1984 election.[20][21]

Subsequently, the party traded the moderate agenda for a more aggressive Hindu nationalist program under the leadership of L.K. Advani from 1984 onwards.[20][22]

The party backed the construction of Ram temple in Ayodhya and made it their electoral plank. By 1989 elections, they secured 86 seats, providing crucial support to V. P. Singh's government.[23] The support was later withdrawn after Hindu religious volunteers called Kar Sevaks were killed while fighting with paramilitary forces guarding Babri Mosque(which is on the disputed site).

Fresh elections ensued and BJP raised its tally to 120 seats and won a majority in the Uttar Pradesh assembly. RSS and its affiliates called for a massive rally at the site of the Babri mosque on December 6, 1992. The rally later gave way to violence and led to the destruction of the mosque. Riots occurred between Hindus and Muslims resulting in over 2,000 deaths. BJP was able to capitalise on the heightened communal polarisation and further increased its strength to 161 seats in the Lok Sabha. Vajpayee was sworn in as Prime Minister as he was the leader of the largest party. However, he couldn't muster majority and stepped down after 13 days.[24]

A coalition of regional parties took over the government but lasted only for two years. BJP fought 1998 elections leading the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) coalition. Vajpayee returned as Prime Minister after gaining outside support from the Telugu Desam Party (TDP). The coalition later lost majority after All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) withdrew support in May 1999.[25]

1999 - 2004 : First full term by non-Congress-led government

BJP retained power after the success of Kargil war in 1999 elections but lost 2004 polls in spite of its India shining campaign.

RSS was the ideological mentor of BJP but Vajpayee couldn't push key issues like building Ram temple (in Ayodhya), Abrogation of Article 370 (in Kashmir), implementing Uniform Civil Code (for adherents of all religions) since his government was dependent upon coalition support. As a result, there were reports on January 2000 that hard-line BJP leaders along with RSS were threatening to restart Jan Sangh, the predecessor of BJP.[26]
In December 1999, terrorists hijacked Indian Airlines IC 814 flight from Kathmandu to New Delhi. The government later accepted their demands to exchange terrorists in prison for the passengers.[27] Two years later, a group of terrorists stormed the Parliament building in Delhi and killed several security guards before being stopped.[28] The Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002 was subsequently passed in March 2002.
Vishva Hindu Parishad held the government in a standoff between December 2001 and March 2002 by trying to perform a foundation stone laying ceremony at Ayodhya.[29][30] The ceremony was later moved to a location a kilometer away and thus ended without further incidents. However Vajpayee was later accused of doing nothing to stop violence during 2002 Gujarat riots. He reportedly wanted to remove the then-CM of Gujarat, Narendra Modi but decided against doing so after party members discouraged him. Vajpayee later admitted that the situation was mishandled and that not removing Modi was a mistake.[31]

During late 2002 and 2003, the government pushed through economic reforms, increasing privatisation, foreign investment and modernisation programmes. This resulted in GDP growth exceeding 7% between the years 2003 and 2007.[32] [33][34]

2004 - 2014 : In opposition wilderness at national level

Vajpayee called for general election six months ahead of schedule. NDA suffered an unexpected defeat (186 seats vs 222 for Congress and its allies). Failure to reach out to rural Indians and a divisive agenda was blamed for the defeat.[35][36]

Vajpayee retired from active politics after the 2004 defeat and appointed L. K. Advani to lead the party.[37] On December 2005, Advani stepped down as party president and Rajnath Singh was elected in his place.[38] On 10 December 2007, the Parliamentary Board of BJP formally announced that L. K. Advani as its prime ministerial candidate for the general elections in 2009.[39]Although he won his 6th term as MP, NDA lost again. Sushma Swaraj was named as Leader of the Opposition. [40][41] She retained this position until May 2014 when, in the 2014 Indian general election, BJP won a major victory.[42]

In May 2008, BJP won the state elections in Karnataka-the first time the party won assembly elections in any South Indian state. But in the 2009 general elections, its strength in the Lok Sabha was reduced to 116 seats. The party went on to lose the Karnataka assembly election in 2013.[43]

2014 - present

Later BJP returned to power with larger mandates in the 2014 and 2019 elections[44] and is currently leading opinion polls for 2024 election as well.[45]

State/Regional level

Shiromani Akali Dal was formed in 1920 as a vehicle for Sikh conservatism in Punjab.[46]

All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen was founded in Hyderabad in 1927 as a party which wanted setting up of a separate dominion instead of integration with India.[47] [48]

Indian Union Muslim League is the successor of All-India Muslim League in post-independence India. Its first council was held on 10 March 1948 in Madras (now Chennai), adopting a constitution on 1 September 1951.[49] The party is primarily active in Kerala.

Uttar Pradesh Praja Party was formed in the state of Uttar Pradesh to oppose the abolition of the zamindari system on April 5-6 1951.But the party soon disappeared after 1951-52 Lok Sabha elections.[50][51]

On 19 June 1966, Mumbai-based cartoonist Bal Thackeray founded Shiv Sena as a Marathi nativist organisation.[52]

Current conservative parties

Defunct conservative parties

See also

References

  1. ^ Beck, Sanderson. South Asia 1800-1950.
  2. ^ McLeod, John (2015). The History of India (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-61069-765-1.
  3. ^ "India is a tolerant, largely conservative country: A political reading of the Pew survey". Times Of India. 26 July 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
  4. ^ "Where Are The Conservative Intellectuals in India". March 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
  5. ^ Bapu, Prabhu (2013). Hindu Mahasabha in Colonial North India, 1915-1930: Constructing Nation and History (1st ed.). London and New York: Routledge. pp. 3, 16. ISBN 978-0415671651.
  6. ^ "RSS founder Hedgewar was with Congress, and other facts you didn't know". 25 March 2020.
  7. ^ Jaffrelot, Christophe (6 October 2017). "How Gujarat Congress embraced conservatism: The story of MK Gandhi, Indulal Yagnik and Sardar Patel". Retrieved 14 January 2024.
  8. ^ Beck, Sanderson. South Asia 1800-1950.
  9. ^ "Founding of Jan Sangh". www.bjp.org. Archived from the original on 25 January 2019. Retrieved 25 January 2019.
  10. ^ Guha 2007, pp. 250, 352, 413.
  11. ^ Guha 2007, pp. 427–428.
  12. ^ Jaffrelot, Christophe (October 2017). "The Roots and Varieties of Political Conservatism in India". Studies in Indian Politics. 5 (2). Sage Journals: 205–217. doi:10.1177/2321023017727968. S2CID 158365025.
  13. ^ Erdman, Howard (October 1978). "Conservatism in India". Journal of Contemporary History. 13 (4). Sage Publications, Ltd.: 791–802. doi:10.1177/002200947801300409. JSTOR 260084. S2CID 154433765.
  14. ^ Shashi Tharoor (2006). India: From Midnight To Millennium and Beyond. Arcade Publishing. pp. 164–66. ISBN 978-1-55970-803-6.
  15. ^ a b Guha 2007, pp. 538–540.
  16. ^ Jaffrelot 1996, pp. 282–283.
  17. ^ Singh, Kuldip (11 April 1995). "OBITUARY: Morarji Desai". The Independent. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  18. ^ Jaffrelot 1996, pp. 301–312.
  19. ^ "Forty years ago, April 7, 1980: BJP is born". The Indian Express. 7 April 2020 [7 April 1980]. Archived from the original on 12 April 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
  20. ^ a b Malik & Singh 1992, pp. 318–336.
  21. ^ Guha 2007, p. 579.
  22. ^ Pai 1996, pp. 1170–1183.
  23. ^ Guha 2007, pp. 582–598.
  24. ^ Guha 2007, pp. 633–659.
  25. ^ Outlook 2013.
  26. ^ Gupta, Sharad; Sinha, Sanjiv (18 January 2000). "Revive Jan Sangh – BJP hardlines". The Indian Express. Archived from the original on 12 August 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
  27. ^ "How the World Paid for the IC-814 Hijacking, 18 Years Ago". The Quint. Archived from the original on 17 August 2018. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
  28. ^ "Parliament attack: From 5 terrorists storming in to Afzal Guru hanging, all that happened in 16 years". India Today. Archived from the original on 12 January 2018. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
  29. ^ Harding, Luke (15 March 2002). "Ayodhya fear: Hindus to defy ban and pray at site of ruined mosque". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 March 2017. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
  30. ^ "Ayodhya: India's religious flashpoint". CNN. 28 February 2002. Archived from the original on 24 January 2011. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
  31. ^ Yogendra, Kanwar (14 June 2004). "Not removing Modi was a mistake, says Vajpayee". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 18 August 2018. Retrieved 18 August 2018.
  32. ^ Agencies (30 June 2004). "India's economy grows 8.2% in 2003–2004". China Daily. Archived from the original on 11 June 2009. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
  33. ^ "GDP growth (annual %): India". World Bank. Archived from the original on 18 August 2018. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
  34. ^ Rai, Saritha (1 April 2004). "India's Economy Soared by 10% in Last Quarter of 2003". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 August 2018. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
  35. ^ Ramesh 2004.
  36. ^ The Hindu 2004.
  37. ^ Sengupta, Somini (31 December 2005). "Former Premier Vajpayee Retires From Indian Politics at 81". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 9 December 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
  38. ^ "Advani resigns for 3rd time in 8 years, once over row on Jinnah remarks". Hindustan Times. 10 June 2013. Archived from the original on 15 June 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
  39. ^ "Finally, BJP announces Advani as PM candidate". The Economic Times. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
  40. ^ "New India opposition leader named". BBC News. 18 December 2009. Archived from the original on 23 April 2020. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
  41. ^ Vyas, Neena (18 December 2009). "Advani quits as Leader of Opposition". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 19 December 2013. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
  42. ^ "BJP gets majority alone". Sahara Samay. 16 May 2014. Archived from the original on 19 May 2014. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
  43. ^ Hindustan Times 2009.
  44. ^ "The rise of BJP and the shifting political landscape in India". 14 December 2023. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  45. ^ "Lok Sabha Elections 2024: Opinion poll predicts hat-trick for Modi, limits INDIA bloc to 163 seats". 18 December 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
  46. ^ "Glorious past, but Shiromani Akali Dal faces serious crisis of identity, popularity & credibility". The Times of India. 14 December 2020. ISSN 0971-8257. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  47. ^ Sudhir, TS (17 September 2018). "Telangana polls: BJP borrows from Hyderabad history to recast Modi as Vallabhbhai Patel, paints KCR as 'new Jinaah'". Firstpost.
  48. ^ Dasgupta, Swapan (22 March 2016). "Statute vs sacred: Owaisi's game has a familiar ring". The Times of India.
  49. ^ Wright, T. (1966). The Muslim League in South India since Independence: A Study in Minority Group Political Strategies. The American Political Science Review, 60(3), 579-599. JSTOR 1952972
  50. ^ Richard Sisson; Stanley A. Wolpert (1 January 1988). Congress and Indian Nationalism: The Pre-independence Phase. University of California Press. pp. 174–179. ISBN 978-0-520-06041-8.
  51. ^ Vasanti Pratapchandra Rasam (1997). Swatantra Party: a political biography. Dattsons. p. 56. ISBN 978-81-7192-033-4.
  52. ^ "Know Your Party: Shiv Sena". Rediff.com. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
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