Chargers–Raiders rivalry

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Chargers–Raiders rivalry
Los Angeles Chargers
Las Vegas Raiders
First meetingNovember 27, 1960
Chargers 52, Raiders 28
Latest meetingDecember 14, 2023
Raiders 63, Chargers 21
Next meeting2024
Statistics
Meetings total129
All-time seriesRaiders, 69–58–2
Postseason resultsRaiders, 1–0
  • January 11, 1981:
    Raiders 34, Chargers 27
Largest victoryChargers: 44–0 (1961);
Raiders: 63–21 (2023)
Longest win streakChargers, 13 (2003–09);
Raiders: 10 (1972–77)
Current win streakRaiders, 1 (2023–present)
Championship success
AFL Championships (2) (1960–1969)

Super Bowl Championships (3)

AFL Western Division Championships (8)
(1960–1969)
AFC West Divisional Championships (22)
AFC Wild Card Berths (12) (1970–present)
Super Bowl Appearances (6)

The Chargers–Raiders rivalry is a National Football League (NFL) rivalry between the Los Angeles Chargers and Las Vegas Raiders that has transcended two leagues and a combined five relocations. Since debuting in the inaugural AFL season, in 1960, as the Oakland Raiders and Los Angeles Chargers in the AFL Western Conference, both teams joined the AFC West in 1970 under the AFL–NFL merger.

Like the 49ers–Rams rivalry in the NFC West, this rivalry represented the geographic and cultural differences between Northern and Southern California, with the Raiders representing Oakland from 1960–81, and again from 1995-2019, and the Chargers represented San Diego from 1961-2016, and Los Angeles in 1960, and since 2017. The Raiders' 13 seasons in Los Angeles, from 1982 to 1994, saw the teams only 130 miles apart. The in-state rivalry was lost with the Raiders' move to Nevada though Las Vegas is closer to Los Angeles by 350 miles than Oakland to San Diego.

History

Locations of the Chargers and Raiders throughout the years.

1960–1969: AFL days

The Chargers and Raiders were both charter members of the American Football League when the league began playing in 1960. The Chargers moved to San Diego after their first year in Los Angeles, appearing in four of the first five AFL Championship games and winning one. Al Davis, who would later become the famous Raiders owner, started off as an assistant coach for the Chargers until becoming Oakland's head coach in 1963. Under Davis, the Raiders held a competitive edge over the Chargers from the late 1960s to the 1990s, appearing in four Super Bowls and winning three of them.[1]

1970–2014

In 1978, the Raiders won over the Chargers in San Diego with a controversial fumblerooski play now known as the Holy Roller. The loss contributed to the Chargers missing the playoffs that year and sparked an NFL rule change.[2] Two years later, both teams returned to the playoffs and faced off in the 1980 AFC championship game. An offensive shootout between Raiders quarterback Jim Plunkett and Chargers quarterback Dan Fouts saw the Raiders prevail 34–27 en route to winning Super Bowl XV over the Philadelphia Eagles.[3] This is the only playoff meeting between the teams.

The Raiders temporarily left Oakland for Los Angeles in 1982, playing there until the conclusion of the 1994 season. Despite only being there for 13 years, the Raiders developed a strong following in Los Angeles during their tenure in the city, which to this day has impeded the Chargers' ability to develop their own following in Los Angeles since returning to that city.[4][5]

One of the ugliest games in the rivalry's history occurred in 1998. Chargers rookie quarterback Ryan Leaf completed just 7 of 18 pass attempts for 78 yards and 3 interceptions. The Raiders did not fare much better on offense, but Raiders backup quarterback Wade Wilson passed for a 68-yard touchdown, his only completion of the day. In the end, both teams had benched their starting quarterbacks as the Raiders narrowly won 7–6. The game set an NFL record for the most punts in a game.[6][7]

Though the Raiders had largely dominated the series for much of the later 20th Century, the Chargers amassed a 13-game winning streak from 2003 to 2009, shortly after the Raiders' appearance in Super Bowl XXXVII and subsequent collapse. One of these losses saw Oakland squander a 15-point halftime lead to lose 28–18, leading up to the firing of head coach Lane Kiffin following that game.[8][9] The Raiders would finally end the losing streak in 2010, defeating the Chargers 35–27 with two blocked punts, two second-half scoring drives led by quarterback Jason Campbell and a Philip Rivers fumble returned by Tyvon Branch for the Raiders' game-clinching touchdown.[10][9]

In 2013, the first Raiders-Chargers game was delayed due to an Athletics postseason game the previous evening, kicking off at 8:35 PM Pacific Time, the latest kickoff time in NFL history. The Raiders won 27–17 with a strong performance by quarterback Terrelle Pryor, a fumble return touchdown by Charles Woodson, and five San Diego turnovers.[11][12] San Diego won the second game that year, however, keeping its playoff hopes alive with a 26–13 win.[13]

2015–2019: Bids to return to Los Angeles

Following the 2015 season, the Raiders and Chargers both proposed to move back to Los Angeles despite their storied rivalry, announcing a shared stadium proposal in Carson, California.[14] However, the proposal was rejected by NFL owners in favor of the St. Louis Rams' proposal to move back to Los Angeles, with the Chargers first being offered a one-year window to accept the chance to share the Rams' stadium and the Raiders to receive the offer should the Chargers decline. On January 12, 2017, Chargers owner Dean Spanos announced his intention to join the Rams in Los Angeles and leave San Diego to play at SoFi Stadium,[15][16] ultimately leading to Raiders owner Mark Davis accepting a deal to move his team to Las Vegas to play at Allegiant Stadium with the NCAA's UNLV Rebels football program.[17][18]

2020–present: Post-relocation

Following both teams' relocations by the 2020 season, the Chargers' first home game in the series at the newly built SoFi Stadium featured a notable final play. Down 31–26, Chargers rookie quarterback Justin Herbert threw a pass to Donald Parham that was initially ruled a touchdown but was later overturned after review as Raiders cornerback Isaiah Johnson was seen barely jarring the ball loose from Parham's hands as he fell out of bounds. The call resulted in the Raiders holding on to win.[19] Both teams narrowly missed the playoffs that year.

After a 63–21 Raiders win in the series on Thursday Night Football in 2023,[20] Staley and general manager Tom Telesco were fired by the Chargers on December 15, 2023.[21] The Chargers-Raiders game set a Chargers franchise record for most points allowed in a single game, along with a Raiders franchise record for most points scored in a single game.[22]

2021 Week 18 Raiders-Chargers game

The game between the two teams during the final week of the 2021 season would decide the final AFC wild card spots that year. Las Vegas took a commanding 29–14 lead in the fourth quarter, but Herbert led the Chargers back to tie the game at 29 apiece after Herbert successfully converted 4 fourth downs by the end of regulation, forcing overtime. After both teams scored field goals in the extra period, the Raiders were set to run out the clock and accept a tie, but after a Chargers timeout, Las Vegas managed to drive back to field goal range and win the game with a successful kick during the final seconds of overtime, clinching the #5 seed while eliminating the Chargers and allowing the Pittsburgh Steelers to clinch the #7 seed.[23] Had the teams tied, they would have both made the postseason over Pittsburgh via their head-to-head wins over the Steelers earlier in the season.

After the game, Raiders quarterback Derek Carr was asked by NBC sideline reporter Michele Tafoya if the timeout changed their mindset on the final drive, he replied "It definitely did, obviously."[23] In a post game press conference, Raiders interim head coach Rich Bisaccia, when asked if the Raiders were playing to tie, said "We were talking about it. . . . We ran the ball there, and they didn’t call a timeout. So I think they were probably thinking the same thing. And then we had the big run. When we got the big run, it got us in advantageous field goal position. . . . We were certainly talking about it on the sideline. We wanted to see if they were gonna take a timeout or not on that run. They didn’t, so we thought they were thinking the same thing. And then we popped the run in there and gave us a chance to kick the field goal to win it. So, we were certainly talking about it.”[24][25] Chargers head coach Brandon Staley, when asked about the timeout by the Los Angeles Times said "We felt like they were going to run the ball. So we wanted to ... make that substitution so that we could get a play where we would deepen the field goal."[26] In Justin Herbert's post game press conference he said "I had never been rooting for a tie more in my life. That's the unfortunate part of being so close."[27]

Season-by-season results

Chargers vs. Raiders Season-by-Season Results
1960s (Chargers, 11–9)
Season Season series at L.A./San Diego Chargers at Oakland Raiders Overall series Notes
1960 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
52–28
Chargers
41–17
Chargers
2–0
Inaugural season for both franchises and the AFL. Chargers lose 1960 AFL Championship.
1961 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
44–0
Chargers
41–10
Chargers
4–0
Chargers move to San Diego after playing first season in Los Angeles. Chargers lose 1961 AFL Championship.
1962 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
31–21
Chargers
42–33
Chargers
6–0
1963 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
34–33
Raiders
41–27
Chargers
6–2
Chargers win 1963 AFL Championship.
1964 Tie 1–1 Chargers
31–17
Raiders
21–20
Chargers
7–3
Chargers lose 1964 AFL Championship.
1965 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
24–14
Chargers
17–6
Chargers
9–3
Chargers lose 1965 AFL Championship.
1966 Tie 1–1 Raiders
41–19
Chargers
29–20
Chargers
10–4
1967 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
41–21
Raiders
51–10
Chargers
10–6
Chargers open San Diego Stadium. Raiders win 1967 AFL Championship, lose Super Bowl II.
1968 Tie 1–1 Raiders
34–27
Chargers
23–14
Chargers
11–7
Raiders lose 1968 AFL Championship.
1969 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
24–12
Raiders
21–16
Chargers
11–9
Raiders lose 1969 AFL Championship.
1970s (Raiders, 15–3–2)
Season Season series at San Diego Chargers at Oakland Raiders Overall series Notes
1970 Raiders 1–0–1 Tie
27–27
Raiders
20–17
Chargers
11–10–1
AFL-NFL merger. Both teams placed in the AFC West.
1971 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
34–0
Raiders
34–33
Raiders
12–11–1
1972 Raiders 1–0–1 Raiders
21–19
Tie
17–17
Raiders
13–11–2
1973 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
27–17
Raiders
31–3
Raiders
15–11–2
1974 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
14–10
Raiders
17–10
Raiders
17–11–2
1975 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
6–0
Raiders
25–0
Raiders
19–11–2
1976 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
27–17
Raiders
24–0
Raiders
21–11–2
Raiders win Super Bowl XI.
1977 Tie 1–1 Chargers
12–7
Raiders
24–0
Raiders
22–12–2
Raiders win 10 straight meetings and go 16–0–2 in 18-game stretch from 1968–77.
1978 Tie 1–1 Raiders
21–20
Chargers
27–23
Raiders
23–13–2
Raiders win game in San Diego on controversial Holy Roller play.
1979 Tie 1–1 Chargers
30–10
Raiders
45–22
Raiders
24–14–2
1980s (Raiders, 14–7)
Season Season series at San Diego Chargers at Oakland/L.A. Raiders Overall series Notes
1980 Tie 1–1 Chargers
30–24(OT)
Raiders
38–24
Raiders
25–15–2
Raiders win Super Bowl XV.
1980 Playoffs Raiders 1–0 Raiders
34–27
Raiders
26–15–2
AFC Championship Game. Only playoff meeting between the two teams.
1981 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
23–10
Chargers
55–21
Raiders
26–17–2
Kellen Winslow has five touchdown receptions in game in Oakland, tied for an NFL record. Chargers' first season sweep over the Raiders since 1965.
1982 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
27–17
Raiders
28–24
Raiders
28–17–2
Raiders move from Oakland to Los Angeles. Both games played despite a players strike reducing the season to nine games.
1983 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
42–10
Raiders
30–14
Raiders
30–17–2
Raiders win Super Bowl XVIII.
1984 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
44–37
Raiders
33–30
Raiders
32–17–2
Raiders win seven straight meetings.
1985 Tie 1–1 Chargers
40–34(OT)
Raiders
34–21
Raiders
33–18–2
1986 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
37–31(OT)
Raiders
17–13
Raiders
35–18–2
1987 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
16–14
Chargers
23–17
Raiders
35–20–2
1988 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
13–3
Raiders
24–13
Raiders
37–20–2
1989 Tie 1–1 Chargers
14–12
Raiders
40–14
Raiders
38–21–2
1990s (Raiders, 11–9)
Season Season series at San Diego Chargers at L.A./Oakland Raiders Overall series Notes
1990 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
24–9
Raiders
17–12
Raiders
40–21–2
1991 Tie 1–1 Raiders
9–7
Chargers
21–13
Raiders
41–22–2
1992 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
27–3
Chargers
36–14
Raiders
41–24–2
1993 Tie 1–1 Raiders
12–7
Chargers
30–23
Raiders
42–25–2
1994 Tie 1–1 Raiders
24–17
Chargers
26–24
Raiders
43–26–2
Chargers lose Super Bowl XXIX.
1995 Tie 1–1 Chargers
17–7
Raiders
12–6
Raiders
44–27–2
Raiders move from Los Angeles back to Oakland.
1996 Tie 1–1 Raiders
23–14
Chargers
40–34
Raiders
45–28–2
1997 Tie 1–1 Raiders
38–13
Chargers
25–10
Raiders
46–29–2
1998 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
17–10
Raiders
7–6
Raiders
48–29–2
1999 Tie 1–1 Chargers
23–20
Raiders
28–9
Raiders
49–30–2
2000s (Chargers, 14–6)
Season Season series at San Diego Chargers at Oakland Raiders Overall series Notes
2000 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
15–13
Raiders
9–6
Raiders
51–30–2
2001 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
13–6
Raiders
34–24
Raiders
53–30–2
2002 Tie 1–1 Raiders
27–7
Chargers
27–21(OT)
Raiders
54–31–2
Raiders lose Super Bowl XXXVII.
2003 Tie 1–1 Chargers
21–14
Raiders
34–31(OT)
Raiders
55–32–2
2004 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
42–14
Chargers
23–17
Raiders
55–34–2
2005 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
34–10
Chargers
27–14
Raiders
55–36–2
2006 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
21–14
Chargers
27–0
Raiders
55–38–2
2007 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
28–14
Chargers
30–17
Raiders
55–40–2
2008 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
34–7
Chargers
28–18
Raiders
55–42–2
Raiders wore white jerseys at home for the first time in the team's history against the Chargers on September 28, 2008, in Oakland.
2009 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
24–16
Chargers
24–20
Raiders
55–44–2
Chargers win 13 straight meetings from 2003 to 2009.
2010s (Tie, 10–10)
Season Season series at San Diego/L.A. Chargers at Oakland Raiders Overall series Notes
2010 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
28–13
Raiders
35–27
Raiders
57–44–2
Raiders sweep division but miss the playoffs, an NFL first.
2011 Tie 1–1 Raiders
24–17
Chargers
38–26
Raiders
58–45–2
2012 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
24–21
Chargers
22–14
Raiders
58–47–2
2013 Tie 1–1 Chargers
26–13
Raiders
27–17
Raiders
59–48–2
2014 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
13–6
Chargers
31–28
Raiders
59–50–2
2015 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
23–20(OT)
Raiders
37–29
Raiders
61–50–2
2016 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
19–16
Raiders
34–31
Raiders
63–50–2
2017 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
30–10
Chargers
17–16
Raiders
63–52–2
Chargers relocate from San Diego to Los Angeles.
2018 Chargers 2–0 Chargers
26–10
Chargers
20–6
Raiders
63–54–2
2019 Raiders 2–0 Raiders
24–17
Raiders
26–24
Raiders
65–54–2
Final year in the rivalry where the Raiders are a California-based franchise.
2020s (Tie, 4–4)
Season Season series at Los Angeles Chargers at Las Vegas Raiders Overall series Notes
2020 Tie 1–1 Raiders
31–26
Chargers
30–27(OT)
Raiders
66–55–2
Chargers open SoFi Stadium. Raiders relocate from Oakland to Las Vegas. Both games decided on final play.
2021 Tie 1–1 Chargers
28–14
Raiders
35–32 (OT)
Raiders
67–56–2
Raiders clinch playoff berth, eliminate Chargers by beating them in week 18 "win and in" game.
2022 Tie 1–1 Chargers
24–19
Raiders
27–20
Raiders
68–57–2
2023 Tie 1–1 Chargers
24–17
Raiders
63–21
Raiders
69–58–2
Raiders and Chargers set franchise scoring records in game played on 12/14/23 in Las Vegas: most points scored and most points allowed (63), respectively; one day later, Chargers head coach Brandon Staley was fired.
Summary of Results
Season Season series at San Diego/L.A. Chargers at Oakland/L.A./Las Vegas Raiders Notes
AFL regular season Chargers 11–9 Tie 5–5 Chargers 6–4
NFL regular season Raiders 59–47–2 Raiders 28–25–1 Raiders 31–22–1
AFL and NFL regular season Raiders 68–58–2 Raiders 33–30–1 Raiders 35–28–1
NFL postseason Raiders 1–0 Raiders 1–0 no games 1980 AFC Championship Game
Regular and postseason Raiders 69–58–2 Raiders 34–30–1 Raiders 35–28–1

Series leaders

Statistics limited to Chargers-Raiders regular games. Correct through 2021 season.

Chargers Raiders Ref
Passing yards Philip Rivers – 7,103 Derek Carr – 4,056 [28][29]
Rushing yards LaDainian Tomlinson – 2,017 Marcus Allen – 1,235 [30][31]
Receiving yards Antonio Gates – 1,424 Tim Brown – 1,697 [32][33]
Touchdowns LaDainian Tomlinson – 25 Marcus Allen – 20 [34][35]
Sacks Shaun Phillips – 14 Greg Townsend13+12 [36][37]
Interceptions Speedy Duncan – 7 Dave Grayson – 8 [38][39]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Raiders and Kansas City Chiefs finished tied with a 12–2 record, but the Raiders were crowned 1968 division champions. Both teams qualified for the AFL playoffs.

References

  1. ^ Rasmussen, Carl (November 8, 2018). "3 Reasons the Chargers-Raiders Rivalry is Bigger Than You Think". 12up.com. Retrieved July 11, 2019.
  2. ^ Holy Roller at 40: How a Raiders' fumble-turned-TD changed the NFL, ESPN, Paul Gutierrez and Eric Williams, April 18, 2018.
  3. ^ "Greatest Moments: 1980 AFC Championship". Raiders. Retrieved July 16, 2019.
  4. ^ "Raiders Still Beloved In LA, But Chargers Have Playoff Hopes". December 28, 2017. Retrieved July 16, 2019.
  5. ^ Nowels, Michael (December 22, 2019). "Raider Nation swarms 'road' game vs. Chargers in Los Angeles". The Mercury News. Retrieved December 25, 2019.
  6. ^ NFL Thowback (July 8, 2019). The UGLIEST Win EVER! (Chargers vs. Raiders, 1998) — NFL Record For Punts!. YouTube.
  7. ^ "San Diego Chargers at Oakland Raiders - October 11th, 1998". Pro-Football-Reference.com. Retrieved July 10, 2019.
  8. ^ ESPN: "Raiders finally fire Kiffin, promote O-line coach Cable". Retrieved September 30, 2008.
  9. ^ a b Prime, Ryan (October 8, 2016). "A Brief History: Oakland Raiders vs. San Diego Chargers". Just Blog Baby. FanSided. Retrieved July 11, 2019.
  10. ^ Dubow, Josh (October 11, 2010). "Raiders rally to beat Chargers 35-27". San Diego Union-Tribune. Retrieved July 11, 2019.
  11. ^ "Pryor, Woodson lead Raiders past Chargers 27-17". ESPN.com. Retrieved July 11, 2019.
  12. ^ Bien, Louis (October 7, 2013). "Pryor, Woodson star in Raiders win over Chargers". SBNation.com. Retrieved July 11, 2019.
  13. ^ Arthur, Kenneth (December 22, 2013). "Chargers win, stay alive for playoffs". SBNation.com. Retrieved July 11, 2019.
  14. ^ Rapoport, Ian (February 20, 2015). "Chargers, Raiders team up for stadium proposal in Los Angeles". NFL.com. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  15. ^ "Chargers to Relocate to Los Angeles". Chargers.com. NFL Enterprises, LLC. January 12, 2017. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017. Retrieved June 10, 2018.
  16. ^ Knoblauch, Austin (January 12, 2017). "Chargers announce decision to relocate to Los Angeles". NFL.com. NFL Enterprises, LLC. Retrieved January 15, 2017.
  17. ^ Rosenthal, Gregg (March 27, 2017). "NFL team owners approve Raiders' move to Las Vegas". NFL.com. NFL Enterprises, LLC. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
  18. ^ Raiders Media Relations (March 27, 2017). "Raiders Receive NFL Approval For Las Vegas Relocation". Raiders.com. NFL Enterprises, LLC. Archived from the original on March 28, 2017. Retrieved March 28, 2017.
  19. ^ Schwab, Frank (November 8, 2020). "Replay review goes against snakebit Chargers on apparent final-play TD, Raiders escape with a win". sports.yahoo.com. Retrieved November 13, 2020.
  20. ^ "Four days after losing 3-0, Raiders set franchise scoring record, beat Chargers 63-21". ESPN.com. December 15, 2023. Retrieved December 15, 2023.
  21. ^ Gordon, Grant. "Chargers fire head coach Brandon Staley, general manager Tom Telesco following blowout loss to Raiders". NFL.com. Retrieved December 15, 2023.
  22. ^ "Four days after losing 3-0, Raiders set franchise scoring record, beat Chargers 63-21". AP News. December 15, 2023. Retrieved January 4, 2024.
  23. ^ a b "Derek Carr admitted the Chargers' mind-boggling timeout in final minute changed the game". Ftw.usatoday.com. January 10, 2022. Retrieved January 11, 2022.
  24. ^ "Raiders vs. Chargers: Raiders were this close to settling for a tie and bumping Steelers from playoffs". Triblive.com. January 10, 2022. Retrieved January 11, 2022.
  25. ^ Florio, Mike (January 10, 2022). "Rich Bisaccia: We were talking about taking a tie". Profootballtalk.nbcsports.com. Retrieved January 11, 2022.
  26. ^ "Chargers' playoff hopes shattered in season-ending overtime loss to Raiders". Los Angeles Times. January 10, 2022. Retrieved January 11, 2022.
  27. ^ "Herbert's heroics not enough as Chargers fall, miss playoffs". Apnews.com. January 10, 2022. Retrieved January 11, 2022.
  28. ^ "Most passing yards, Chargers vs. Raiders". stathead.com. Retrieved August 4, 2022.
  29. ^ "Most passing yards, Raiders vs. Chargers". stathead.com. Retrieved August 4, 2022.
  30. ^ "Most rushing yards, Chargers vs. Raiders". stathead.com. Retrieved August 4, 2022.
  31. ^ "Most rushing yards, Raiders vs. Chargers". stathead.com. Retrieved August 4, 2022.
  32. ^ "Most receiving yards, Chargers vs. Raiders". stathead.com. Retrieved August 4, 2022.
  33. ^ "Most receiving yards, Raiders vs. Chargers". stathead.com. Retrieved August 4, 2022.
  34. ^ "Most touchdowns, Chargers vs. Raiders". stathead.com. Retrieved August 4, 2022.
  35. ^ "Most touchdowns, Raiders vs. Chargers". stathead.com. Retrieved August 4, 2022.
  36. ^ "Most sacks, Chargers vs. Raiders". stathead.com. Retrieved August 5, 2022.
  37. ^ "Most sacks, Raiders vs. Chargers". stathead.com. Retrieved August 5, 2022.
  38. ^ "Most interceptions, Chargers vs. Raiders". stathead.com. Retrieved August 5, 2022.
  39. ^ "Most interceptions, Raiders vs. Chargers". stathead.com. Retrieved August 5, 2022.

External links